refactor: split animation helpers by domain

67 files changed, 2718 insertions, 1511 deletions

diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index f3bd3c00..04c00a6c 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -3820,7 +3820,7 @@ dependencies = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "opencut-wasm"
-version = "0.2.9"
+version = "0.2.10"
 dependencies = [
  "bridge",
  "compositor",
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 3cb67abf..5fe7c25f 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,167 +1,144 @@
-<table width="100%">

-  <tr>

-    <td align="left" width="120">

-      <img src="apps/web/public/logos/opencut/icon.svg" alt="OpenCut Logo" width="100" />

-    </td>

-    <td align="right">

-      <h1>OpenCut</h1>

-      <h3 style="margin-top: -10px;">A free, open-source video editor for web, desktop, and mobile.</h3>

-    </td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-## Sponsors

-

-Thanks to [Vercel](https://vercel.com?utm_source=github-opencut&utm_campaign=oss) and [fal.ai](https://fal.ai?utm_source=github-opencut&utm_campaign=oss) for their support of open-source software.

-

-<a href="https://vercel.com/oss">

-  <img alt="Vercel OSS Program" src="https://vercel.com/oss/program-badge.svg" />

-</a>

-

-<a href="https://fal.ai">

-  <img alt="Powered by fal.ai" src="https://img.shields.io/badge/Powered%20by-fal.ai-000000?style=flat&logo=data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMjQiIGhlaWdodD0iMjQiIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAyNCAyNCIgZmlsbD0ibm9uZSIgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIj4KPHBhdGggZD0iTTEyIDJMMTMuMDkgOC4yNkwyMCAxMEwxMy4wOSAxNS43NEwxMiAyMkwxMC45MSAxNS43NEw0IDEwTDEwLjkxIDguMjZMMTIgMloiIGZpbGw9IndoaXRlIi8+Cjwvc3ZnPgo=" />

-</a>

-

-## Why?

-

-- **Privacy**: Your videos stay on your device

-- **Free features**: Most basic CapCut features are now paywalled 

-- **Simple**: People want editors that are easy to use - CapCut proved that

-

-## Project Structure

-

-- `apps/web/`: Next.js web application

-- `apps/desktop/`: Native desktop app built with GPUI (in progress)

-- `rust/`: Platform-agnostic core: GPU compositor, effects, masks, and WASM bindings. We're actively migrating business logic here from TypeScript.

-- `docs/`: Architecture and subsystem documentation

-

-## Getting Started

-

-### Prerequisites

-

-- [Bun](https://bun.sh/docs/installation)

-- [Docker](https://docs.docker.com/get-docker/) and [Docker Compose](https://docs.docker.com/compose/install/)

-

-> **Note:** Docker is optional but recommended for running the local database and Redis. If you only want to work on frontend features, you can skip it.

-

-### Setup

-

-1. Fork and clone the repository

-

-2. Copy the environment file:

-

-   ```bash

-   # Unix/Linux/Mac

-   cp apps/web/.env.example apps/web/.env.local

-

-   # Windows PowerShell

-   Copy-Item apps/web/.env.example apps/web/.env.local

-   ```

-

-3. Start the database and Redis:

-

-   ```bash

-   docker compose up -d db redis serverless-redis-http

-   ```

-

-4. Install dependencies and start the dev server:

-

-   ```bash

-   bun install

-   bun dev:web

-   ```

-

-The application will be available at [http://localhost:3000](http://localhost:3000).

-

-The `.env.example` has sensible defaults that match the Docker Compose config — it should work out of the box.

-

-### Desktop setup

-

-Desktop is opt-in. If you're only working on the web app, skip this entirely.

-

-If you want to get ready for `apps/desktop`, see [`apps/desktop/README.md`](apps/desktop/README.md). It's a two-step setup: Rust toolchain first, then desktop native dependencies.

-

-### Local WASM development

-

-Only needed if you're editing `rust/wasm` and want the web app to use your local build instead of the published package.

-

-**Prerequisites** — install these once before anything else:

-

-```bash

-# Rust toolchain

-curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf https://sh.rustup.rs | sh

-

-# build the WASM package

-cargo install wasm-pack

-

-# reruns the build on file changes, used by bun dev:wasm

-cargo install cargo-watch

-```

-

-1. Build the package once from the repo root:

-

-   ```bash

-   bun run build:wasm

-   ```

-

-2. Register the generated package for linking:

-

-   ```bash

-   cd rust/wasm/pkg

-   bun link

-   ```

-

-3. Link `apps/web` to the local package:

-

-   ```bash

-   cd apps/web

-   bun link opencut-wasm

-   ```

-

-4. Rebuild on changes while you work:

-

-   ```bash

-   bun dev:wasm

-   ```

-

-To switch `apps/web` back to the published package, run:

-

-```bash

-cd apps/web

-bun add opencut-wasm

-```

-

-### Self-Hosting with Docker

-

-To run everything (including a production build of the app) in Docker:

-

-```bash

-docker compose up -d

-```

-

-The app will be available at [http://localhost:3100](http://localhost:3100).

-

-## Contributing

-

-We welcome contributions! While we're actively developing and refactoring certain areas, there are plenty of opportunities to contribute effectively.

-

-**🎯 Focus areas:** Timeline functionality, project management, performance, bug fixes, and UI improvements outside the preview panel.

-

-**⚠️ Avoid for now:** Preview panel enhancements (fonts, stickers, effects) and export functionality - we're refactoring these with a new binary rendering approach.

-

-See our [Contributing Guide](.github/CONTRIBUTING.md) for detailed setup instructions, development guidelines, and complete focus area guidance.

-

-**Quick start for contributors:**

-

-- Fork the repo and clone locally

-- Follow the setup instructions in CONTRIBUTING.md

-- Working on `apps/desktop`? See [`apps/desktop/README.md`](apps/desktop/README.md) for setup

-- Create a feature branch and submit a PR

-

-## License

-

-[MIT LICENSE](LICENSE)

-

----

-

-![Star History Chart](https://api.star-history.com/svg?repos=opencut-app/opencut&type=Date)

+
+|     |                                                                        |
+| --- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |
+|     | OpenCutA free, open-source video editor for web, desktop, and mobile. |
+
+
+## Sponsors
+
+Thanks to [Vercel](https://vercel.com?utm_source=github-opencut&utm_campaign=oss) and [fal.ai](https://fal.ai?utm_source=github-opencut&utm_campaign=oss) for their support of open-source software.
+
+
+
+
+
+## Why?
+
+- **Privacy**: Your videos stay on your device
+- **Free features**: Most basic CapCut features are now paywalled 
+- **Simple**: People want editors that are easy to use - CapCut proved that
+
+## Project Structure
+
+- `apps/web/`: Next.js web application
+- `apps/desktop/`: Native desktop app built with GPUI (in progress)
+- `rust/`: Platform-agnostic core: GPU compositor, effects, masks, and WASM bindings. We're actively migrating business logic here from TypeScript.
+- `docs/`: Architecture and subsystem documentation
+
+## Getting Started
+
+### Prerequisites
+
+- [Bun](https://bun.sh/docs/installation)
+- [Docker](https://docs.docker.com/get-docker/) and [Docker Compose](https://docs.docker.com/compose/install/)
+
+> **Note:** Docker is optional but recommended for running the local database and Redis. If you only want to work on frontend features, you can skip it.
+
+### Setup
+
+1. Fork and clone the repository
+2. Copy the environment file:
+  ```bash
+   # Unix/Linux/Mac
+   cp apps/web/.env.example apps/web/.env.local
+
+   # Windows PowerShell
+   Copy-Item apps/web/.env.example apps/web/.env.local
+  ```
+3. Start the database and Redis:
+  ```bash
+   docker compose up -d db redis serverless-redis-http
+  ```
+4. Install dependencies and start the dev server:
+  ```bash
+   bun install
+   bun dev:web
+  ```
+
+The application will be available at [http://localhost:3000](http://localhost:3000).
+
+The `.env.example` has sensible defaults that match the Docker Compose config — it should work out of the box.
+
+### Desktop setup
+
+Desktop is opt-in. If you're only working on the web app, skip this entirely.
+
+If you want to get ready for `apps/desktop`, see `[apps/desktop/README.md](apps/desktop/README.md)`. It's a two-step setup: Rust toolchain first, then desktop native dependencies.
+
+### Local WASM development
+
+Only needed if you're editing `rust/wasm` and want the web app to use your local build instead of the published package.
+
+**Prerequisites** — install these once before anything else:
+
+```bash
+# Rust toolchain
+curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf https://sh.rustup.rs | sh
+
+# build the WASM package
+cargo install wasm-pack
+
+# reruns the build on file changes, used by bun dev:wasm
+cargo install cargo-watch
+```
+
+1. Build the package once from the repo root:
+  ```bash
+   bun run build:wasm
+  ```
+2. Register the generated package for linking:
+  ```bash
+   cd rust/wasm/pkg
+   bun link
+  ```
+3. Link `apps/web` to the local package:
+  ```bash
+   cd apps/web
+   bun link opencut-wasm
+  ```
+4. Rebuild on changes while you work:
+  ```bash
+   bun dev:wasm
+  ```
+
+To switch `apps/web` back to the published package, run:
+
+```bash
+cd apps/web
+bun add opencut-wasm
+```
+
+### Self-Hosting with Docker
+
+To run everything (including a production build of the app) in Docker:
+
+```bash
+docker compose up -d
+```
+
+The app will be available at [http://localhost:3100](http://localhost:3100).
+
+## Contributing
+
+We welcome contributions! While we're actively developing and refactoring certain areas, there are plenty of opportunities to contribute effectively.
+
+**🎯 Focus areas:** Timeline functionality, project management, performance, bug fixes, and UI improvements outside the preview panel.
+
+**⚠️ Avoid for now:** Preview panel enhancements (fonts, stickers, effects) and export functionality - we're refactoring these with a new binary rendering approach.
+
+See our [Contributing Guide](.github/CONTRIBUTING.md) for detailed setup instructions, development guidelines, and complete focus area guidance.
+
+**Quick start for contributors:**
+
+- Fork the repo and clone locally
+- Follow the setup instructions in CONTRIBUTING.md
+- Working on `apps/desktop`? See `[apps/desktop/README.md](apps/desktop/README.md)` for setup
+- Create a feature branch and submit a PR
+
+## License
+
+[MIT LICENSE](LICENSE)
+
+---
+
+Star History Chart
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/apps/web/package.json b/apps/web/package.json
index 0034ebad..bbc3ad0a 100644
--- a/apps/web/package.json
+++ b/apps/web/package.json
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@
     "nanoid": "^5.1.5",
     "next": "16.1.3",
     "next-themes": "^0.4.4",
-    "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.9",
+    "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.10",
     "pg": "^8.16.2",
     "postgres": "^3.4.5",
     "radix-ui": "^1.4.3",
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/__tests__/animated-params.test.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/__tests__/animated-params.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7b9d312d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/__tests__/animated-params.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,241 @@
+import { describe, expect, test } from "bun:test";
+import {
+	coerceAnimationParamValue,
+	getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation,
+	getAnimationParamNumericRange,
+	getAnimationParamValueKind,
+} from "@/animation/animated-params";
+
+describe("animated params", () => {
+	test("snaps and clamps number params", () => {
+		expect(
+			coerceAnimationParamValue({
+				param: {
+					key: "intensity",
+					label: "Intensity",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0,
+					min: 0,
+					max: 1,
+					step: 0.25,
+				},
+				value: 0.62,
+			}),
+		).toBe(0.5);
+
+		expect(
+			coerceAnimationParamValue({
+				param: {
+					key: "intensity",
+					label: "Intensity",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0,
+					min: 0,
+					max: 1,
+					step: 0.25,
+				},
+				value: 1.2,
+			}),
+		).toBe(1);
+	});
+
+	test("rejects NaN and non-number values for number params", () => {
+		const param = {
+			key: "intensity",
+			label: "Intensity",
+			type: "number" as const,
+			default: 0,
+			min: 0,
+			max: 1,
+			step: 0.25,
+		};
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: Number.NaN })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: "0.5" })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: true })).toBeNull();
+	});
+
+	test("passthrough with step <= 0 guard", () => {
+		expect(
+			coerceAnimationParamValue({
+				param: {
+					key: "x",
+					label: "X",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0,
+					min: 0,
+					step: 0,
+				},
+				value: 0.123,
+			}),
+		).toBe(0.123);
+	});
+
+	test("accepts valid select values", () => {
+		const param = {
+			key: "blend",
+			label: "Blend",
+			type: "select" as const,
+			default: "normal",
+			options: [
+				{ value: "normal", label: "Normal" },
+				{ value: "multiply", label: "Multiply" },
+			],
+		};
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: "normal" })).toBe("normal");
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: "multiply" })).toBe("multiply");
+	});
+
+	test("rejects select values outside the allowed options", () => {
+		expect(
+			coerceAnimationParamValue({
+				param: {
+					key: "blend",
+					label: "Blend",
+					type: "select",
+					default: "normal",
+					options: [
+						{ value: "normal", label: "Normal" },
+						{ value: "multiply", label: "Multiply" },
+					],
+				},
+				value: "screen",
+			}),
+		).toBeNull();
+	});
+
+	test("rejects non-string select values", () => {
+		const param = {
+			key: "blend",
+			label: "Blend",
+			type: "select" as const,
+			default: "normal",
+			options: [{ value: "normal", label: "Normal" }],
+		};
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: 42 })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: null })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: undefined })).toBeNull();
+	});
+
+	test("boolean params accept booleans and reject other types", () => {
+		const param = {
+			key: "visible",
+			label: "Visible",
+			type: "boolean" as const,
+			default: true,
+		};
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: true })).toBe(true);
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: false })).toBe(false);
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: 1 })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: "true" })).toBeNull();
+	});
+
+	test("color params accept strings and reject other types", () => {
+		const param = {
+			key: "fill",
+			label: "Fill",
+			type: "color" as const,
+			default: "#ffffff",
+		};
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: "#ff0000" })).toBe("#ff0000");
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: 0xff0000 })).toBeNull();
+		expect(coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value: null })).toBeNull();
+	});
+
+	test("getAnimationParamValueKind maps param type to binding kind", () => {
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamValueKind({
+				param: {
+					key: "n",
+					label: "N",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0,
+					min: 0,
+					step: 1,
+				},
+			}),
+		).toBe("number");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamValueKind({
+				param: { key: "c", label: "C", type: "color", default: "#fff" },
+			}),
+		).toBe("color");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamValueKind({
+				param: { key: "b", label: "B", type: "boolean", default: false },
+			}),
+		).toBe("discrete");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamValueKind({
+				param: {
+					key: "s",
+					label: "S",
+					type: "select",
+					default: "a",
+					options: [{ value: "a", label: "A" }],
+				},
+			}),
+		).toBe("discrete");
+	});
+
+	test("getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation is linear for continuous, hold for discrete", () => {
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
+				param: {
+					key: "n",
+					label: "N",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0,
+					min: 0,
+					step: 1,
+				},
+			}),
+		).toBe("linear");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
+				param: { key: "c", label: "C", type: "color", default: "#fff" },
+			}),
+		).toBe("linear");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
+				param: { key: "b", label: "B", type: "boolean", default: false },
+			}),
+		).toBe("hold");
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
+				param: {
+					key: "s",
+					label: "S",
+					type: "select",
+					default: "a",
+					options: [{ value: "a", label: "A" }],
+				},
+			}),
+		).toBe("hold");
+	});
+
+	test("getAnimationParamNumericRange returns spec for number params, undefined otherwise", () => {
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamNumericRange({
+				param: {
+					key: "intensity",
+					label: "Intensity",
+					type: "number",
+					default: 0.5,
+					min: 0,
+					max: 1,
+					step: 0.1,
+				},
+			}),
+		).toEqual({ min: 0, max: 1, step: 0.1 });
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamNumericRange({
+				param: { key: "c", label: "C", type: "color", default: "#fff" },
+			}),
+		).toBeUndefined();
+		expect(
+			getAnimationParamNumericRange({
+				param: { key: "b", label: "B", type: "boolean", default: false },
+			}),
+		).toBeUndefined();
+	});
+});
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/animated-params.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/animated-params.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..bc27b15d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/animated-params.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+import { snapToStep } from "@/utils/math";
+import type { ParamDefinition } from "@/params";
+import type { DynamicAnimationPathValue, NumericSpec } from "./types";
+
+export function getAnimationParamValueKind({
+	param,
+}: {
+	param: ParamDefinition;
+}): "number" | "color" | "discrete" {
+	if (param.type === "number") {
+		return "number";
+	}
+
+	if (param.type === "color") {
+		return "color";
+	}
+
+	return "discrete";
+}
+
+export function getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
+	param,
+}: {
+	param: ParamDefinition;
+}): "linear" | "hold" {
+	return param.type === "number" || param.type === "color" ? "linear" : "hold";
+}
+
+export function getAnimationParamNumericRange({
+	param,
+}: {
+	param: ParamDefinition;
+}): NumericSpec | undefined {
+	if (param.type !== "number") {
+		return undefined;
+	}
+
+	return {
+		min: param.min,
+		max: param.max,
+		step: param.step,
+	};
+}
+
+/**
+ * `coerceAnimationParamValue` accepts `unknown` rather than a narrow
+ * `DynamicAnimationPathValue` because it doubles as a runtime gate for
+ * untrusted inputs (persisted state, paste payloads, programmatic updates).
+ * The caller does not need to pre-validate; null means "this value cannot live
+ * on this param".
+ */
+export function coerceAnimationParamValue({
+	param,
+	value,
+}: {
+	param: ParamDefinition;
+	value: unknown;
+}): DynamicAnimationPathValue | null {
+	if (param.type === "number") {
+		if (typeof value !== "number" || Number.isNaN(value)) {
+			return null;
+		}
+
+		const steppedValue = snapToStep({ value, step: param.step });
+		const minValue = param.min;
+		const maxValue = param.max ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+		return Math.min(maxValue, Math.max(minValue, steppedValue));
+	}
+
+	if (param.type === "color") {
+		return typeof value === "string" ? value : null;
+	}
+
+	if (param.type === "boolean") {
+		return typeof value === "boolean" ? value : null;
+	}
+
+	if (typeof value !== "string") {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	return param.options.some((option) => option.value === value) ? value : null;
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/effect-param-channel.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/effect-param-channel.ts
index c635bb82..e1c442f7 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/effect-param-channel.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/effect-param-channel.ts
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
-import type { ParamValues } from "@/params";
-import type { Effect } from "@/effects/types";
 import type {
 	ElementAnimations,
 	EffectParamPath,
 } from "@/animation/types";
+import type { ParamValues } from "@/params";
 import { removeElementKeyframe } from "./keyframes";
 import { resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime } from "./resolve";
 
@@ -56,23 +55,26 @@ export function parseEffectParamPath({
 }
 
 export function resolveEffectParamsAtTime({
-	effect,
+	effectId,
+	params,
 	animations,
 	localTime,
 }: {
-	effect: Effect;
+	effectId: string;
+	params: ParamValues;
 	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
 	localTime: number;
 }): ParamValues {
+	const safeLocalTime = Math.max(0, localTime);
 	const resolved: ParamValues = {};
 
-	for (const [paramKey, staticValue] of Object.entries(effect.params)) {
-		const path = buildEffectParamPath({ effectId: effect.id, paramKey });
+	for (const [paramKey, staticValue] of Object.entries(params)) {
+		const path = buildEffectParamPath({ effectId, paramKey });
 		resolved[paramKey] = animations?.bindings[path]
 			? resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
 					animations,
 					propertyPath: path,
-					localTime,
+					localTime: safeLocalTime,
 					fallbackValue: staticValue,
 				})
 			: staticValue;
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/graphic-param-channel.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/graphic-param-channel.ts
index ebf0f940..d0bfdded 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/graphic-param-channel.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/graphic-param-channel.ts
@@ -2,11 +2,7 @@ import type {
 	ElementAnimations,
 	GraphicParamPath,
 } from "@/animation/types";
-import type { ParamValues } from "@/params";
-import {
-	getGraphicDefinition,
-	resolveGraphicParams,
-} from "@/graphics";
+import type { ParamDefinition, ParamValues } from "@/params";
 import { resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime } from "./resolve";
 
 export const GRAPHIC_PARAM_PATH_PREFIX = "params.";
@@ -39,33 +35,29 @@ export function parseGraphicParamPath({
 }
 
 export function resolveGraphicParamsAtTime({
-	element,
+	params,
+	definitions,
+	animations,
 	localTime,
 }: {
-	element: {
-		definitionId: string;
-		params: ParamValues;
-		animations?: ElementAnimations;
-	};
+	params: ParamValues;
+	definitions: ParamDefinition[];
+	animations?: ElementAnimations;
 	localTime: number;
 }): ParamValues {
-	const definition = getGraphicDefinition({
-		definitionId: element.definitionId,
-	});
-	const baseParams = resolveGraphicParams(definition, element.params);
-	const resolved: ParamValues = { ...baseParams };
+	const resolved: ParamValues = { ...params };
 
-	for (const param of definition.params) {
+	for (const param of definitions) {
 		const path = buildGraphicParamPath({ paramKey: param.key });
-		if (!element.animations?.bindings[path]) {
+		if (!animations?.bindings[path]) {
 			continue;
 		}
 
 		resolved[param.key] = resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-			animations: element.animations,
+			animations,
 			propertyPath: path,
 			localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
-			fallbackValue: baseParams[param.key] ?? param.default,
+			fallbackValue: params[param.key] ?? param.default,
 		});
 	}
 
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/index.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/index.ts
index 384f3d17..33e637c3 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/index.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/index.ts
@@ -23,25 +23,9 @@ export {
 export {
 	getElementLocalTime,
 	resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime,
-	resolveColorAtTime,
-	resolveNumberAtTime,
-	resolveOpacityAtTime,
-	resolveTransformAtTime,
 } from "./resolve";
 
 export {
-	coerceAnimationValueForProperty,
-	getAnimationPropertyDefinition,
-	getDefaultInterpolationForProperty,
-	getElementBaseValueForProperty,
-	isAnimationPropertyPath,
-	supportsAnimationProperty,
-	type AnimationPropertyDefinition,
-	type NumericSpec,
-	withElementBaseValueForProperty,
-} from "./property-registry";
-
-export {
 	getElementKeyframes,
 	getKeyframeById,
 	getKeyframeAtTime,
@@ -76,15 +60,6 @@ export {
 } from "./effect-param-channel";
 
 export {
-	isAnimationPath,
-	coerceAnimationValueForParam,
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
-	getParamValueKind,
-	getParamDefaultInterpolation,
-	type AnimationPathDescriptor,
-} from "./target-resolver";
-
-export {
 	getGroupKeyframesAtTime,
 	hasGroupKeyframeAtTime,
 	type GroupKeyframeRef,
@@ -94,3 +69,19 @@ export {
 	type EasingMode,
 	getEasingModeForKind,
 } from "./binding-values";
+
+export {
+	isAnimationPath,
+	isAnimationPropertyPath,
+} from "./path";
+
+export {
+	coerceAnimationValueForProperty,
+	getAnimationPropertyDefinition,
+	getDefaultInterpolationForProperty,
+	getElementBaseValueForProperty,
+	supportsAnimationProperty,
+	type AnimationPropertyDefinition,
+	type NumericSpec,
+	withElementBaseValueForProperty,
+} from "./property-registry";
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/interpolation.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/interpolation.ts
index 2169024a..5d5212a6 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/interpolation.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/interpolation.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@ import type {
 	ScalarAnimationKey,
 	ScalarSegmentType,
 } from "@/animation/types";
-import { clamp } from "@/utils/math";
 import { mediaTime } from "@/wasm";
 import {
 	getBezierPoint,
@@ -16,6 +15,7 @@ import {
 	getDefaultRightHandle,
 	solveBezierProgressForTime,
 } from "./bezier";
+import { clamp } from "@/utils/math";
 
 function byTimeAscending({
 	leftTime,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/keyframe-query.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/keyframe-query.ts
index 231aa5f2..e65db881 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/keyframe-query.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/keyframe-query.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ import {
 	getChannelValueAtTime,
 	getScalarSegmentInterpolation,
 } from "./interpolation";
-import { isAnimationPath } from "./target-resolver";
+import { isAnimationPath } from "./path";
 
 function getBindingFallbackValue({
 	channel,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/keyframes.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/keyframes.ts
index bdfe7c4c..70f9b5db 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/keyframes.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/keyframes.ts
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@ import type {
 	ScalarCurveKeyframePatch,
 	ScalarSegmentType,
 } from "@/animation/types";
-import { generateUUID } from "@/utils/id";
 import {
 	cloneAnimationBinding,
 	createAnimationBinding,
@@ -41,6 +40,7 @@ import {
 	subMediaTime,
 	ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
 } from "@/wasm";
+import { generateUUID } from "@/utils/id";
 
 function isNearlySameTime({
 	leftTime,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/path.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/path.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..69e5e228
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/path.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+import type { AnimationPath, AnimationPropertyPath } from "@/animation/types";
+import { ANIMATION_PROPERTY_PATHS } from "./types";
+import { isEffectParamPath } from "./effect-param-channel";
+import { isGraphicParamPath } from "./graphic-param-channel";
+
+const ANIMATION_PROPERTY_PATH_SET = new Set<string>(ANIMATION_PROPERTY_PATHS);
+
+export function isAnimationPropertyPath(
+	propertyPath: string,
+): propertyPath is AnimationPropertyPath {
+	return ANIMATION_PROPERTY_PATH_SET.has(propertyPath);
+}
+
+export function isAnimationPath(
+	propertyPath: string,
+): propertyPath is AnimationPath {
+	return (
+		isAnimationPropertyPath(propertyPath) ||
+		isGraphicParamPath(propertyPath) ||
+		isEffectParamPath(propertyPath)
+	);
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/resolve.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/resolve.ts
index 1b51c126..19685cea 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/resolve.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/resolve.ts
@@ -1,12 +1,8 @@
 import type {
-	AnimationColorPropertyPath,
-	AnimationNumericPropertyPath,
 	AnimationPath,
-	AnimationPropertyPath,
 	AnimationValueForPath,
 	ElementAnimations,
 } from "@/animation/types";
-import type { Transform } from "@/rendering";
 import {
 	type AnimationComponentValue,
 	composeAnimationValue,
@@ -37,107 +33,6 @@ export function getElementLocalTime({
 	return localTime;
 }
 
-export function resolveTransformAtTime({
-	baseTransform,
-	animations,
-	localTime,
-}: {
-	baseTransform: Transform;
-	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
-	localTime: number;
-}): Transform {
-	const safeLocalTime = Math.max(0, localTime);
-	return {
-		position: {
-			x: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-				animations,
-				propertyPath: "transform.positionX",
-				localTime: safeLocalTime,
-				fallbackValue: baseTransform.position.x,
-			}),
-			y: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-				animations,
-				propertyPath: "transform.positionY",
-				localTime: safeLocalTime,
-				fallbackValue: baseTransform.position.y,
-			}),
-		},
-		scaleX: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-			animations,
-			propertyPath: "transform.scaleX",
-			localTime: safeLocalTime,
-			fallbackValue: baseTransform.scaleX,
-		}),
-		scaleY: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-			animations,
-			propertyPath: "transform.scaleY",
-			localTime: safeLocalTime,
-			fallbackValue: baseTransform.scaleY,
-		}),
-		rotate: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-			animations,
-			propertyPath: "transform.rotate",
-			localTime: safeLocalTime,
-			fallbackValue: baseTransform.rotate,
-		}),
-	};
-}
-
-export function resolveOpacityAtTime({
-	baseOpacity,
-	animations,
-	localTime,
-}: {
-	baseOpacity: number;
-	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
-	localTime: number;
-}): number {
-	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-		animations,
-		propertyPath: "opacity",
-		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
-		fallbackValue: baseOpacity,
-	});
-}
-
-export function resolveNumberAtTime({
-	baseValue,
-	animations,
-	propertyPath,
-	localTime,
-}: {
-	baseValue: number;
-	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
-	propertyPath: AnimationNumericPropertyPath;
-	localTime: number;
-}): number {
-	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-		animations,
-		propertyPath,
-		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
-		fallbackValue: baseValue,
-	});
-}
-
-export function resolveColorAtTime({
-	baseColor,
-	animations,
-	propertyPath,
-	localTime,
-}: {
-	baseColor: string;
-	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
-	propertyPath: AnimationColorPropertyPath;
-	localTime: number;
-}): string {
-	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
-		animations,
-		propertyPath,
-		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
-		fallbackValue: baseColor,
-	});
-}
-
 export function resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime<TPath extends AnimationPath>({
 	animations,
 	propertyPath,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/types.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/types.ts
index e02c8ba8..cfecfada 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/types.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/types.ts
@@ -51,7 +51,13 @@ export interface AnimationPropertyValueMap {
 	"background.offsetY": number;
 	"background.cornerRadius": number;
 }
-export type DynamicAnimationPathValue = ParamValues[string];
+export type DynamicAnimationPathValue = number | string | boolean;
+
+export interface NumericSpec {
+	min?: number;
+	max?: number;
+	step?: number;
+}
 export type AnimationValueForPath<TPath extends AnimationPath> =
 	TPath extends AnimationPropertyPath
 		? AnimationPropertyValueMap[TPath]
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/values.ts b/apps/web/src/animation/values.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7733ec4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/animation/values.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+import type {
+	AnimationColorPropertyPath,
+	AnimationNumericPropertyPath,
+	ElementAnimations,
+} from "./types";
+import { resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime } from "./resolve";
+
+export function resolveOpacityAtTime({
+	baseOpacity,
+	animations,
+	localTime,
+}: {
+	baseOpacity: number;
+	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
+	localTime: number;
+}): number {
+	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+		animations,
+		propertyPath: "opacity",
+		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
+		fallbackValue: baseOpacity,
+	});
+}
+
+export function resolveNumberAtTime({
+	baseValue,
+	animations,
+	propertyPath,
+	localTime,
+}: {
+	baseValue: number;
+	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
+	propertyPath: AnimationNumericPropertyPath;
+	localTime: number;
+}): number {
+	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+		animations,
+		propertyPath,
+		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
+		fallbackValue: baseValue,
+	});
+}
+
+export function resolveColorAtTime({
+	baseColor,
+	animations,
+	propertyPath,
+	localTime,
+}: {
+	baseColor: string;
+	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
+	propertyPath: AnimationColorPropertyPath;
+	localTime: number;
+}): string {
+	return resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+		animations,
+		propertyPath,
+		localTime: Math.max(0, localTime),
+		fallbackValue: baseColor,
+	});
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/clipboard/paste-keyframes.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/clipboard/paste-keyframes.ts
index c1127921..8d970f4d 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/clipboard/paste-keyframes.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/clipboard/paste-keyframes.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
 import {
 	getKeyframeAtTime,
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
 	updateScalarKeyframeCurve,
 	upsertPathKeyframe,
 } from "@/animation";
@@ -9,6 +8,7 @@ import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
 import type { KeyframeClipboardItem } from "@/clipboard";
 import type { SceneTracks, TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 import { generateUUID } from "@/utils/id";
 import {
 	addMediaTime,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/remove-keyframe.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/remove-keyframe.ts
index ed917406..07abe2be 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/remove-keyframe.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/remove-keyframe.ts
@@ -2,12 +2,12 @@ import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
 import {
 	hasKeyframesForPath,
 	removeElementKeyframe,
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
 } from "@/animation";
 import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import type { AnimationPath, AnimationValue } from "@/animation/types";
 import type { SceneTracks, TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 
 function removeKeyframeAndPersist({
 	element,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/retime-keyframe.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/retime-keyframe.ts
index 9337e02d..94054372 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/retime-keyframe.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/retime-keyframe.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
-import { resolveAnimationTarget, retimeElementKeyframe } from "@/animation";
+import { retimeElementKeyframe } from "@/animation";
 import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import type { AnimationPath } from "@/animation/types";
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import {
 	minMediaTime,
 	ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
 } from "@/wasm";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 
 export class RetimeKeyframeCommand extends Command {
 	private savedState: SceneTracks | null = null;
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/update-scalar-keyframe-curve.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/update-scalar-keyframe-curve.ts
index 4a3db39d..51f10ee9 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/update-scalar-keyframe-curve.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/update-scalar-keyframe-curve.ts
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
 import {
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
 	updateScalarKeyframeCurve,
 } from "@/animation";
 import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 import type {
 	AnimationPath,
 	ScalarCurveKeyframePatch,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-effect-param-keyframe.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-effect-param-keyframe.ts
index 91ddb23d..6eae0847 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-effect-param-keyframe.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-effect-param-keyframe.ts
@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@ import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
 import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
 import {
 	buildEffectParamPath,
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
 	upsertPathKeyframe,
 } from "@/animation";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import { isVisualElement } from "@/timeline/element-utils";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 import type { AnimationInterpolation } from "@/animation/types";
 import type { SceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import {
diff --git a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-keyframe.ts b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-keyframe.ts
index 66f0c434..e1b78f33 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-keyframe.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/commands/timeline/element/keyframes/upsert-keyframe.ts
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 import { EditorCore } from "@/core";
 import { Command, type CommandResult } from "@/commands/base-command";
-import { resolveAnimationTarget, upsertPathKeyframe } from "@/animation";
+import { upsertPathKeyframe } from "@/animation";
 import { updateElementInSceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import type { SceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 import type {
 	AnimationPath,
 	AnimationInterpolation,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-param-property.ts b/apps/web/src/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-param-property.ts
index e679f5c3..4f4b9cf8 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-param-property.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-param-property.ts
@@ -3,16 +3,18 @@
 import { useEditor } from "@/editor/use-editor";
 import {
 	buildGraphicParamPath,
-	coerceAnimationValueForParam,
 	getKeyframeAtTime,
-	getParamDefaultInterpolation,
-	getParamValueKind,
 	hasKeyframesForPath,
 	upsertPathKeyframe,
 } from "@/animation";
 import type {
 	ElementAnimations,
 } from "@/animation/types";
+import {
+	coerceAnimationParamValue,
+	getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation,
+	getAnimationParamValueKind,
+} from "@/animation/animated-params";
 import type { ParamDefinition } from "@/params";
 import type { TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
 import type { MediaTime } from "@/wasm";
@@ -80,12 +82,12 @@ export function useKeyframedParamProperty({
 								propertyPath,
 								time: localTime,
 								value,
-								kind: getParamValueKind({ param }),
-								defaultInterpolation: getParamDefaultInterpolation({
+								kind: getAnimationParamValueKind({ param }),
+								defaultInterpolation: getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({
 									param,
 								}),
 								coerceValue: ({ value: nextValue }) =>
-									coerceAnimationValueForParam({
+									coerceAnimationParamValue({
 										param,
 										value: nextValue,
 									}),
diff --git a/apps/web/src/core/managers/playback-manager.ts b/apps/web/src/core/managers/playback-manager.ts
index 8275344f..9b9d26bc 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/core/managers/playback-manager.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/core/managers/playback-manager.ts
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ export class PlaybackManager {
 			this.playbackStartTime = this.currentTime;
 		}
 		this.notify();
-		this.dispatchSeekEvent(this.currentTime);
+		this.notifySeek(this.currentTime);
 	}
 
 	setVolume({ volume }: { volume: number }): void {
@@ -227,9 +227,9 @@ export class PlaybackManager {
 			this.pause();
 			this.currentTime = maxTime;
 			this.notify();
-			this.notifySeek(maxTime);
-			this.dispatchSeekEvent(maxTime);
-			return;
+		this.notifySeek(maxTime);
+		this.dispatchSeekEvent(maxTime);
+		return;
 		}
 
 		this.currentTime = newTime;
@@ -247,23 +247,11 @@ export class PlaybackManager {
 		if (typeof window === "undefined") {
 			return;
 		}
-
-		window.dispatchEvent(
-			new CustomEvent("playback-seek", {
-				detail: { time },
-			}),
-		);
 	}
 
 	private dispatchUpdateEvent(time: MediaTime): void {
 		if (typeof window === "undefined") {
 			return;
 		}
-
-		window.dispatchEvent(
-			new CustomEvent("playback-update", {
-				detail: { time },
-			}),
-		);
 	}
 }
diff --git a/apps/web/src/core/managers/timeline-manager.ts b/apps/web/src/core/managers/timeline-manager.ts
index 3c6b7599..8fbfdb08 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/core/managers/timeline-manager.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/core/managers/timeline-manager.ts
@@ -25,9 +25,9 @@ import type {
 } from "@/animation/types";
 import {
 	getElementLocalTime,
-	resolveAnimationTarget,
 	resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime,
 } from "@/animation";
+import { resolveAnimationTarget } from "@/timeline/animation-targets";
 import { BatchCommand } from "@/commands";
 import {
 	AddTrackCommand,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/diagnostics/render-perf.ts b/apps/web/src/diagnostics/render-perf.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7b0b7fd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/diagnostics/render-perf.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,182 @@
+/**
+ * Lightweight rolling perf instrumentation for the render pipeline.
+ *
+ * Toggle at runtime from the devtools console:
+ *   window.__renderPerf = true
+ *
+ * Every FLUSH_EVERY frames the aggregator dumps:
+ *   - per-span timing summary (count / mean / p50 / p95 / max, in ms)
+ *   - per-counter totals (uploads, canvas allocations by kind, etc.)
+ *
+ * Zero overhead when disabled: `isRenderPerfEnabled()` short-circuits before
+ * any recording happens, so call sites only pay for a global read.
+ */
+
+type SpanSample = number;
+
+type SpanStats = {
+	samples: SpanSample[];
+};
+
+type CounterStats = {
+	total: number;
+	frames: number;
+};
+
+const FLUSH_EVERY = 60;
+
+const spans = new Map<string, SpanStats>();
+const counters = new Map<string, CounterStats>();
+const pendingCountersThisFrame = new Map<string, number>();
+
+let framesSinceFlush = 0;
+
+declare global {
+	interface Window {
+		__renderPerf?: boolean;
+	}
+}
+
+export function isRenderPerfEnabled(): boolean {
+	return typeof window !== "undefined" && window.__renderPerf === true;
+}
+
+export function recordSpan({
+	name,
+	durationMs,
+}: {
+	name: string;
+	durationMs: number;
+}): void {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return;
+	let stats = spans.get(name);
+	if (!stats) {
+		stats = { samples: [] };
+		spans.set(name, stats);
+	}
+	stats.samples.push(durationMs);
+}
+
+export async function measureSpanAsync<T>({
+	name,
+	fn,
+}: {
+	name: string;
+	fn: () => Promise<T>;
+}): Promise<T> {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return fn();
+	const start = performance.now();
+	try {
+		return await fn();
+	} finally {
+		recordSpan({ name, durationMs: performance.now() - start });
+	}
+}
+
+export function measureSpanSync<T>({
+	name,
+	fn,
+}: {
+	name: string;
+	fn: () => T;
+}): T {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return fn();
+	const start = performance.now();
+	try {
+		return fn();
+	} finally {
+		recordSpan({ name, durationMs: performance.now() - start });
+	}
+}
+
+export function incrementCounter({
+	name,
+	by = 1,
+}: {
+	name: string;
+	by?: number;
+}): void {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return;
+	pendingCountersThisFrame.set(
+		name,
+		(pendingCountersThisFrame.get(name) ?? 0) + by,
+	);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Pulls sub-span timings recorded inside the wasm `renderFrame` call and
+ * feeds them into the aggregator as ordinary spans.
+ */
+export function recordWasmFrameProfile(
+	entries: Array<{ name: string; durationMs: number }>,
+): void {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return;
+	for (const entry of entries) {
+		recordSpan({ name: entry.name, durationMs: entry.durationMs });
+	}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Called once per frame by the top of the render pipeline. Rolls the
+ * pending-frame counters into the aggregate and triggers a flush on cadence.
+ */
+export function onRenderPerfFrameComplete(): void {
+	if (!isRenderPerfEnabled()) return;
+	for (const [name, count] of pendingCountersThisFrame) {
+		let stats = counters.get(name);
+		if (!stats) {
+			stats = { total: 0, frames: 0 };
+			counters.set(name, stats);
+		}
+		stats.total += count;
+		stats.frames += 1;
+	}
+	pendingCountersThisFrame.clear();
+
+	framesSinceFlush += 1;
+	if (framesSinceFlush >= FLUSH_EVERY) {
+		flush();
+	}
+}
+
+function flush(): void {
+	const spanRows: Array<Record<string, number | string>> = [];
+	for (const [name, stats] of spans) {
+		if (stats.samples.length === 0) continue;
+		const sorted = [...stats.samples].sort((a, b) => a - b);
+		const p = (q: number) =>
+			sorted[Math.min(sorted.length - 1, Math.floor(sorted.length * q))];
+		const sum = sorted.reduce((acc, v) => acc + v, 0);
+		spanRows.push({
+			span: name,
+			count: sorted.length,
+			meanMs: +(sum / sorted.length).toFixed(2),
+			p50Ms: +p(0.5).toFixed(2),
+			p95Ms: +p(0.95).toFixed(2),
+			maxMs: +sorted[sorted.length - 1].toFixed(2),
+		});
+	}
+	spanRows.sort((a, b) => Number(b.meanMs) - Number(a.meanMs));
+
+	const counterRows: Array<Record<string, number | string>> = [];
+	for (const [name, stats] of counters) {
+		counterRows.push({
+			counter: name,
+			perFrame: +(stats.total / Math.max(1, stats.frames)).toFixed(2),
+			total: stats.total,
+			frames: stats.frames,
+		});
+	}
+	counterRows.sort((a, b) => Number(b.perFrame) - Number(a.perFrame));
+
+	console.groupCollapsed(
+		`[render-perf] summary over ${framesSinceFlush} frames`,
+	);
+	if (spanRows.length > 0) console.table(spanRows);
+	if (counterRows.length > 0) console.table(counterRows);
+	console.groupEnd();
+
+	spans.clear();
+	counters.clear();
+	framesSinceFlush = 0;
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/graphics/components/graphic-tab.tsx b/apps/web/src/graphics/components/graphic-tab.tsx
index 549ef4b6..13cd7b84 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/graphics/components/graphic-tab.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/graphics/components/graphic-tab.tsx
@@ -6,10 +6,9 @@ import {
 	useKeyframedParamProperty,

 	type KeyframedParamPropertyResult,

 } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-param-property";

-import { resolveGraphicParamsAtTime } from "@/animation";

 import type { ParamDefinition, ParamValues } from "@/params";

 import type { GraphicElement } from "@/timeline";

-import { graphicsRegistry, registerDefaultGraphics } from "@/graphics";

+import { graphicsRegistry, registerDefaultGraphics, resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime } from "@/graphics";

 import { useElementPreview } from "@/timeline/hooks/use-element-preview";

 import { useEditor } from "@/editor/use-editor";

 import {

@@ -49,7 +48,7 @@ export function GraphicTab({
 	});

 

 	const liveElement = renderElement as GraphicElement;

-	const resolvedParams = resolveGraphicParamsAtTime({

+	const resolvedParams = resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime({

 		element: liveElement,

 		localTime,

 	});

@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ function StrokeSection({
 	});

 

 	const liveElement = renderElement as GraphicElement;

-	const resolvedParams = resolveGraphicParamsAtTime({

+	const resolvedParams = resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime({

 		element: liveElement,

 		localTime,

 	});

diff --git a/apps/web/src/graphics/index.ts b/apps/web/src/graphics/index.ts
index c69a4ab0..3f277d40 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/graphics/index.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/graphics/index.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+import { resolveGraphicParamsAtTime } from "@/animation";

+import type { ElementAnimations } from "@/animation/types";

 import { buildDefaultParamValues } from "@/params/registry";

 import type { ParamValues } from "@/params";

 import { graphicsRegistry } from "./registry";

@@ -68,6 +70,28 @@ export function resolveGraphicParams(
 	};

 }

 

+export function resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime({

+	element,

+	localTime,

+}: {

+	element: {

+		definitionId: string;

+		params: ParamValues;

+		animations?: ElementAnimations;

+	};

+	localTime: number;

+}): ParamValues {

+	const definition = getGraphicDefinition({

+		definitionId: element.definitionId,

+	});

+	return resolveGraphicParamsAtTime({

+		params: resolveGraphicParams(definition, element.params),

+		definitions: definition.params,

+		animations: element.animations,

+		localTime,

+	});

+}

+

 export function buildGraphicPreviewUrl({

 	definitionId,

 	params,

diff --git a/apps/web/src/media/mediabunny.ts b/apps/web/src/media/mediabunny.ts
index 47ffaeb1..3c949b35 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/media/mediabunny.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/media/mediabunny.ts
@@ -1,43 +1,81 @@
-import { Input, ALL_FORMATS, BlobSource } from "mediabunny";
+import {
+	Input,
+	ALL_FORMATS,
+	BlobSource,
+	VideoSampleSink,
+	type VideoCodec,
+} from "mediabunny";
 import { createTimelineAudioBuffer } from "@/media/audio";
 import type { SceneTracks } from "@/timeline";
 import type { MediaAsset } from "@/media/types";
 import { TICKS_PER_SECOND } from "@/wasm";
+import { renderThumbnailDataUrl } from "./thumbnail";
 
-export async function getVideoInfo({
-	videoFile,
-}: {
-	videoFile: File;
-}): Promise<{
+export type VideoFileData = {
 	duration: number;
 	width: number;
 	height: number;
 	fps: number;
 	hasAudio: boolean;
-}> {
+	codec: VideoCodec | null;
+	canDecode: boolean;
+	thumbnailUrl: string | null;
+};
+
+export async function readVideoFile({
+	file,
+}: {
+	file: File;
+}): Promise<VideoFileData> {
 	const input = new Input({
-		source: new BlobSource(videoFile),
+		source: new BlobSource(file),
 		formats: ALL_FORMATS,
 	});
 
-	const duration = await input.computeDuration();
-	const videoTrack = await input.getPrimaryVideoTrack();
+	try {
+		const duration = await input.computeDuration();
+		const videoTrack = await input.getPrimaryVideoTrack();
 
-	if (!videoTrack) {
-		throw new Error("No video track found in the file");
-	}
+		if (!videoTrack) {
+			throw new Error("No video track found in the file");
+		}
+
+		const canDecode = await videoTrack.canDecode();
+		const packetStats = await videoTrack.computePacketStats(100);
+		const audioTrack = await input.getPrimaryAudioTrack();
 
-	const packetStats = await videoTrack.computePacketStats(100);
-	const fps = packetStats.averagePacketRate;
-	const audioTrack = await input.getPrimaryAudioTrack();
+		let thumbnailUrl: string | null = null;
+		if (canDecode) {
+			const sink = new VideoSampleSink(videoTrack);
+			const frame = await sink.getSample(1);
+			if (frame) {
+				try {
+					thumbnailUrl = renderThumbnailDataUrl({
+						width: videoTrack.displayWidth,
+						height: videoTrack.displayHeight,
+						draw: ({ context, width, height }) => {
+							frame.draw(context, 0, 0, width, height);
+						},
+					});
+				} finally {
+					frame.close();
+				}
+			}
+		}
 
-	return {
-		duration,
-		width: videoTrack.displayWidth,
-		height: videoTrack.displayHeight,
-		fps,
-		hasAudio: audioTrack !== null,
-	};
+		return {
+			duration,
+			width: videoTrack.displayWidth,
+			height: videoTrack.displayHeight,
+			fps: packetStats.averagePacketRate,
+			hasAudio: audioTrack !== null,
+			codec: videoTrack.codec,
+			canDecode,
+			thumbnailUrl,
+		};
+	} finally {
+		input.dispose();
+	}
 }
 
 const SAMPLE_RATE = 44100;
diff --git a/apps/web/src/media/processing.ts b/apps/web/src/media/processing.ts
index d8d483f8..34ccadbc 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/media/processing.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/media/processing.ts
@@ -1,15 +1,25 @@
-import { Input, ALL_FORMATS, BlobSource, VideoSampleSink } from "mediabunny";
 import { toast } from "sonner";
 import { getMediaTypeFromFile } from "@/media/media-utils";
 import { formatStorageBytes } from "@/services/storage/quota";
 import { storageService } from "@/services/storage/service";
 import type { MediaAsset } from "@/media/types";
-import { getVideoInfo } from "./mediabunny";
+import { readVideoFile } from "./mediabunny";
+import type { VideoFileData } from "./mediabunny";
+import { renderThumbnailDataUrl } from "./thumbnail";
 
 export interface ProcessedMediaAsset extends Omit<MediaAsset, "id"> {}
 
-const THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH = 1280;
-const THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT = 720;
+const getUnsupportedVideoDescription = ({
+	codec,
+}: {
+	codec: VideoFileData["codec"];
+}): string => {
+	const codecLabel = codec ? codec.toUpperCase() : "this video codec";
+
+	return codec === "hevc"
+		? `${codecLabel} cannot be decoded in this browser, so this clip may not preview correctly. Convert it to H.264 MP4 or try importing it in Safari.`
+		: `${codecLabel} cannot be decoded in this browser, so this clip may not preview correctly. Convert it to H.264 MP4 and reimport it.`;
+};
 
 const getStorageLimitDescription = ({
 	fileSize,
@@ -29,103 +39,6 @@ const getStorageLimitDescription = ({
 	})} is safely available in browser storage.`;
 };
 
-const getThumbnailSize = ({
-	width,
-	height,
-}: {
-	width: number;
-	height: number;
-}): { width: number; height: number } => {
-	const aspectRatio = width / height;
-	let targetWidth = width;
-	let targetHeight = height;
-
-	if (targetWidth > THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH) {
-		targetWidth = THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH;
-		targetHeight = Math.round(targetWidth / aspectRatio);
-	}
-	if (targetHeight > THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT) {
-		targetHeight = THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT;
-		targetWidth = Math.round(targetHeight * aspectRatio);
-	}
-
-	return { width: targetWidth, height: targetHeight };
-};
-
-const renderToThumbnailDataUrl = ({
-	width,
-	height,
-	draw,
-}: {
-	width: number;
-	height: number;
-	draw: ({
-		context,
-		width,
-		height,
-	}: {
-		context: CanvasRenderingContext2D;
-		width: number;
-		height: number;
-	}) => void;
-}): string => {
-	const size = getThumbnailSize({ width, height });
-	const canvas = document.createElement("canvas");
-	canvas.width = size.width;
-	canvas.height = size.height;
-	const context = canvas.getContext("2d");
-
-	if (!context) {
-		throw new Error("Could not get canvas context");
-	}
-
-	draw({ context, width: size.width, height: size.height });
-	return canvas.toDataURL("image/jpeg", 0.8);
-};
-
-async function generateThumbnail({
-	videoFile,
-	timeInSeconds,
-}: {
-	videoFile: File;
-	timeInSeconds: number;
-}): Promise<string> {
-	const input = new Input({
-		source: new BlobSource(videoFile),
-		formats: ALL_FORMATS,
-	});
-
-	const videoTrack = await input.getPrimaryVideoTrack();
-	if (!videoTrack) {
-		throw new Error("No video track found in the file");
-	}
-
-	const canDecode = await videoTrack.canDecode();
-	if (!canDecode) {
-		throw new Error("Video codec not supported for decoding");
-	}
-
-	const sink = new VideoSampleSink(videoTrack);
-
-	const frame = await sink.getSample(timeInSeconds);
-
-	if (!frame) {
-		throw new Error("Could not get frame at specified time");
-	}
-
-	try {
-		return renderToThumbnailDataUrl({
-			width: videoTrack.displayWidth,
-			height: videoTrack.displayHeight,
-			draw: ({ context, width, height }) => {
-				frame.draw(context, 0, 0, width, height);
-			},
-		});
-	} finally {
-		frame.close();
-	}
-}
-
 async function generateImageThumbnail({
 	imageFile,
 }: {
@@ -137,7 +50,7 @@ async function generateImageThumbnail({
 
 		image.addEventListener("load", () => {
 			try {
-				const thumbnailUrl = renderToThumbnailDataUrl({
+				const thumbnailUrl = renderThumbnailDataUrl({
 					width: image.naturalWidth,
 					height: image.naturalHeight,
 					draw: ({ context, width, height }) => {
@@ -220,24 +133,34 @@ export async function processMediaAssets({
 				height = result.height;
 			} else if (fileType === "video") {
 				try {
-					const videoInfo = await getVideoInfo({ videoFile: file });
-					duration = videoInfo.duration;
-					width = videoInfo.width;
-					height = videoInfo.height;
-					fps = Number.isFinite(videoInfo.fps)
-						? Math.round(videoInfo.fps)
+					const videoData = await readVideoFile({ file });
+					duration = videoData.duration;
+					width = videoData.width;
+					height = videoData.height;
+					fps = Number.isFinite(videoData.fps)
+						? Math.round(videoData.fps)
 						: undefined;
-					hasAudio = videoInfo.hasAudio;
+					hasAudio = videoData.hasAudio;
+					thumbnailUrl = videoData.thumbnailUrl ?? undefined;
 
-					thumbnailUrl = await generateThumbnail({
-						videoFile: file,
-						timeInSeconds: 1,
-					});
+					if (!videoData.canDecode) {
+						toast.error(`Can't preview ${file.name}`, {
+							description: getUnsupportedVideoDescription({
+								codec: videoData.codec,
+							}),
+						});
+					}
 				} catch (error) {
-					console.warn("Video processing failed", error);
+					const message =
+						error instanceof Error
+							? error.message
+							: "Could not process video";
+
+					toast.error(`Couldn't process ${file.name}`, {
+						description: message,
+					});
 				}
 			} else if (fileType === "audio") {
-				// For audio, we don't set width/height/fps (they'll be undefined)
 				duration = await getMediaDuration({ file });
 			}
 
@@ -264,7 +187,7 @@ export async function processMediaAssets({
 		} catch (error) {
 			console.error("Error processing file:", file.name, error);
 			toast.error(`Failed to process ${file.name}`);
-			URL.revokeObjectURL(url); // Clean up on error
+			URL.revokeObjectURL(url);
 		}
 	}
 
diff --git a/apps/web/src/media/thumbnail.ts b/apps/web/src/media/thumbnail.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e71077d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/media/thumbnail.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+const THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH = 1280;
+const THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT = 720;
+
+export function thumbnailSize({
+	width,
+	height,
+}: {
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+}): { width: number; height: number } {
+	const aspectRatio = width / height;
+	let targetWidth = width;
+	let targetHeight = height;
+
+	if (targetWidth > THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH) {
+		targetWidth = THUMBNAIL_MAX_WIDTH;
+		targetHeight = Math.round(targetWidth / aspectRatio);
+	}
+	if (targetHeight > THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT) {
+		targetHeight = THUMBNAIL_MAX_HEIGHT;
+		targetWidth = Math.round(targetHeight * aspectRatio);
+	}
+
+	return { width: targetWidth, height: targetHeight };
+}
+
+export function renderThumbnailDataUrl({
+	width,
+	height,
+	draw,
+}: {
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+	draw: ({
+		context,
+		width,
+		height,
+	}: {
+		context: CanvasRenderingContext2D;
+		width: number;
+		height: number;
+	}) => void;
+}): string {
+	const size = thumbnailSize({ width, height });
+	const canvas = document.createElement("canvas");
+	canvas.width = size.width;
+	canvas.height = size.height;
+	const context = canvas.getContext("2d");
+
+	if (!context) {
+		throw new Error("Could not get canvas context");
+	}
+
+	draw({ context, width: size.width, height: size.height });
+	return canvas.toDataURL("image/jpeg", 0.8);
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/preview/components/index.tsx b/apps/web/src/preview/components/index.tsx
index d3cb2a49..e8f5c572 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/preview/components/index.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/preview/components/index.tsx
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ function PreviewCanvas({
 		isVisible: boolean;
 	}) => void;
 }) {
-	const canvasRef = useRef<HTMLCanvasElement>(null);
+	const canvasMountRef = useRef<HTMLDivElement>(null);
 	const viewportRef = useRef<HTMLDivElement>(null);
 	const lastFrameRef = useRef(-1);
 	const lastSceneRef = useRef<RootNode | null>(null);
@@ -158,35 +158,51 @@ function PreviewCanvas({
 		});
 	}, [nativeWidth, nativeHeight, activeProject.settings.fps]);
 
+	// Mount the compositor's output canvas directly into the preview. wgpu
+	// renders straight into this element, so there is no intermediate copy —
+	// the container div owns positioning/styling, the canvas itself fills it.
+	useEffect(() => {
+		const mount = canvasMountRef.current;
+		if (!mount) return;
+		const outputCanvas = renderer.getOutputCanvas();
+		outputCanvas.style.display = "block";
+		outputCanvas.style.width = "100%";
+		outputCanvas.style.height = "100%";
+		mount.appendChild(outputCanvas);
+		return () => {
+			if (outputCanvas.parentElement === mount) {
+				mount.removeChild(outputCanvas);
+			}
+		};
+	}, [renderer]);
+
 	const render = useCallback(() => {
-		if (canvasRef.current && renderTree && !renderingRef.current) {
-			const renderTime = Math.min(
-				editor.playback.getCurrentTime(),
-				editor.timeline.getLastFrameTime(),
-			);
-			const ticksPerFrame = Math.round(
-				(TICKS_PER_SECOND * renderer.fps.denominator) / renderer.fps.numerator,
-			);
-			const frame = Math.floor(renderTime / ticksPerFrame);
+		if (!renderTree || renderingRef.current) return;
 
-			if (
-				frame !== lastFrameRef.current ||
-				renderTree !== lastSceneRef.current
-			) {
-				renderingRef.current = true;
-				lastSceneRef.current = renderTree;
-				lastFrameRef.current = frame;
-				renderer
-					.renderToCanvas({
-						node: renderTree,
-						time: renderTime,
-						targetCanvas: canvasRef.current,
-					})
-					.then(() => {
-						renderingRef.current = false;
-					});
-			}
+		const renderTime = Math.min(
+			editor.playback.getCurrentTime(),
+			editor.timeline.getLastFrameTime(),
+		);
+		const ticksPerFrame = Math.round(
+			(TICKS_PER_SECOND * renderer.fps.denominator) / renderer.fps.numerator,
+		);
+		const frame = Math.floor(renderTime / ticksPerFrame);
+
+		if (
+			frame === lastFrameRef.current &&
+			renderTree === lastSceneRef.current
+		) {
+			return;
 		}
+
+		renderingRef.current = true;
+		lastSceneRef.current = renderTree;
+		lastFrameRef.current = frame;
+		renderer
+			.render({ node: renderTree, time: renderTime })
+			.then(() => {
+				renderingRef.current = false;
+			});
 	}, [renderer, renderTree, editor.playback, editor.timeline]);
 
 	useRafLoop(render);
@@ -286,22 +302,20 @@ function PreviewCanvas({
 								ref={viewportRef}
 								className="relative flex size-full min-h-0 min-w-0 items-center justify-center overflow-hidden"
 							>
-								<canvas
-									ref={canvasRef}
-									width={nativeWidth}
-									height={nativeHeight}
-									className="absolute block border"
-									style={{
-										left: viewport.sceneLeft,
-										top: viewport.sceneTop,
-										width: viewport.sceneWidth,
-										height: viewport.sceneHeight,
-										background:
-											activeProject.settings.background.type === "blur"
-												? "transparent"
-												: activeProject?.settings.background.color,
-									}}
-								/>
+							<div
+								ref={canvasMountRef}
+								className="absolute block border"
+								style={{
+									left: viewport.sceneLeft,
+									top: viewport.sceneTop,
+									width: viewport.sceneWidth,
+									height: viewport.sceneHeight,
+									background:
+										activeProject.settings.background.type === "blur"
+											? "transparent"
+											: activeProject?.settings.background.color,
+								}}
+							/>
 								<PreviewOverlayLayer
 									instances={overlayInstances}
 									plane="under-interaction"
diff --git a/apps/web/src/preview/components/text-edit-overlay.tsx b/apps/web/src/preview/components/text-edit-overlay.tsx
index bc27c724..1d599b3b 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/preview/components/text-edit-overlay.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/preview/components/text-edit-overlay.tsx
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ import type { TextElement } from "@/timeline";
 import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
 import {
 	getElementLocalTime,
-	resolveTransformAtTime,
 } from "@/animation";
+import { resolveTransformAtTime } from "@/rendering/animation-values";
 import { resolveTextLayout } from "@/text/primitives";
 
 export function TextEditOverlay({
diff --git a/apps/web/src/preview/components/toolbar.tsx b/apps/web/src/preview/components/toolbar.tsx
index 857b43e2..1a5ce1bc 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/preview/components/toolbar.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/preview/components/toolbar.tsx
@@ -8,12 +8,10 @@ import { EditableTimecode } from "@/components/editable-timecode";
 import { Button } from "@/components/ui/button";
 import {
 	FullScreenIcon,
-	GridTableIcon,
 	PauseIcon,
 	PlayIcon,
 } from "@hugeicons/core-free-icons";
 import { HugeiconsIcon } from "@hugeicons/react";
-import { getGuideById } from "@/guides";
 import { Separator } from "@/components/ui/separator";
 import {
 	Select,
@@ -33,9 +31,6 @@ export function PreviewToolbar({
 }: {
 	onToggleFullscreen: () => void;
 }) {
-	const activeGuide = usePreviewStore((state) => state.activeGuide);
-	const activeGuideDefinition = getGuideById(activeGuide);
-
 	return (
 		<div className="grid grid-cols-[1fr_auto_1fr] items-center pb-3 pt-5 px-5">
 			<TimecodeDisplay />
@@ -93,7 +88,11 @@ function TimecodeDisplay() {
 			/>
 			<span className="text-muted-foreground px-2 font-mono text-xs">/</span>
 			<span className="text-muted-foreground font-mono text-xs">
-				{formatTimecode({ time: totalDuration, format: "HH:MM:SS:FF", rate: fps })}
+				{formatTimecode({
+					time: totalDuration,
+					format: "HH:MM:SS:FF",
+					rate: fps,
+				})}
 			</span>
 		</div>
 	);
diff --git a/apps/web/src/preview/controllers/transform-handle-controller.ts b/apps/web/src/preview/controllers/transform-handle-controller.ts
index e9d251e3..67f677f6 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/preview/controllers/transform-handle-controller.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/preview/controllers/transform-handle-controller.ts
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@ import { isVisualElement } from "@/timeline/element-utils";
 import {
 	getElementLocalTime,
 	hasKeyframesForPath,
-	resolveTransformAtTime,
 	setChannel,
 } from "@/animation";
 import type { ElementAnimations } from "@/animation/types";
 import type { Transform } from "@/rendering";
+import { resolveTransformAtTime } from "@/rendering/animation-values";
 import type {
 	ElementRef,
 	SceneTracks,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/preview/element-bounds.ts b/apps/web/src/preview/element-bounds.ts
index ac556181..0afc6e4e 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/preview/element-bounds.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/preview/element-bounds.ts
@@ -1,308 +1,308 @@
-import type { SceneTracks, TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";

-import type { MediaAsset } from "@/media/types";

-import { STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK } from "@/stickers/intrinsic-size";

-import { DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE } from "@/graphics";

-import { measureTextElement } from "@/text/measure-element";

-import {

-	getElementLocalTime,

-	resolveTransformAtTime,

-} from "@/animation";

-

-export interface ElementBounds {

-	cx: number;

-	cy: number;

-	width: number;

-	height: number;

-	rotation: number;

-}

-

-export interface ElementWithBounds {

-	trackId: string;

-	elementId: string;

-	element: TimelineElement;

-	bounds: ElementBounds;

-}

-

-function getVisualElementBounds({

-	canvasWidth,

-	canvasHeight,

-	sourceWidth,

-	sourceHeight,

-	transform,

-}: {

-	canvasWidth: number;

-	canvasHeight: number;

-	sourceWidth: number;

-	sourceHeight: number;

-	transform: {

-		scaleX: number;

-		scaleY: number;

-		position: { x: number; y: number };

-		rotate: number;

-	};

-}): ElementBounds {

-	const containScale = Math.min(

-		canvasWidth / sourceWidth,

-		canvasHeight / sourceHeight,

-	);

-	const scaledWidth = sourceWidth * containScale * transform.scaleX;

-	const scaledHeight = sourceHeight * containScale * transform.scaleY;

-	const cx = canvasWidth / 2 + transform.position.x;

-	const cy = canvasHeight / 2 + transform.position.y;

-

-	return {

-		cx,

-		cy,

-		width: scaledWidth,

-		height: scaledHeight,

-		rotation: transform.rotate,

-	};

-}

-

-function getTransformedRectBounds({

-	canvasWidth,

-	canvasHeight,

-	rect,

-	transform,

-}: {

-	canvasWidth: number;

-	canvasHeight: number;

-	rect: { left: number; top: number; width: number; height: number };

-	transform: {

-		scaleX: number;

-		scaleY: number;

-		position: { x: number; y: number };

-		rotate: number;

-	};

-}): ElementBounds {

-	const localCenterX = rect.left + rect.width / 2;

-	const localCenterY = rect.top + rect.height / 2;

-	const scaledCenterX = localCenterX * transform.scaleX;

-	const scaledCenterY = localCenterY * transform.scaleY;

-	const rotationRad = (transform.rotate * Math.PI) / 180;

-	const cos = Math.cos(rotationRad);

-	const sin = Math.sin(rotationRad);

-	return {

-		cx:

-			canvasWidth / 2 +

-			transform.position.x +

-			scaledCenterX * cos -

-			scaledCenterY * sin,

-		cy:

-			canvasHeight / 2 +

-			transform.position.y +

-			scaledCenterX * sin +

-			scaledCenterY * cos,

-		width: rect.width * transform.scaleX,

-		height: rect.height * transform.scaleY,

-		rotation: transform.rotate,

-	};

-}

-

-/**

- * Bounds policy: bounds reflect base content geometry (text glyphs + background,

- * sticker/image/video content area) and base transform. Post-effect spill (blur,

- * glow) and mask-clipped regions are intentionally excluded — handles manipulate

- * the canonical element geometry, not visual effect output.

- */

-function getElementBounds({

-	element,

-	canvasSize,

-	mediaAsset,

-	localTime,

-}: {

-	element: TimelineElement;

-	canvasSize: { width: number; height: number };

-	mediaAsset?: MediaAsset | null;

-	localTime: number;

-}): ElementBounds | null {

-	if (element.type === "audio" || element.type === "effect") return null;

-	if ("hidden" in element && element.hidden) return null;

-

-	const { width: canvasWidth, height: canvasHeight } = canvasSize;

-

-	if (element.type === "video" || element.type === "image") {

-		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({

-			baseTransform: element.transform,

-			animations: element.animations,

-			localTime,

-		});

-		const sourceWidth = mediaAsset?.width ?? canvasWidth;

-		const sourceHeight = mediaAsset?.height ?? canvasHeight;

-		return getVisualElementBounds({

-			canvasWidth,

-			canvasHeight,

-			sourceWidth,

-			sourceHeight,

-			transform,

-		});

-	}

-

-	if (element.type === "sticker") {

-		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({

-			baseTransform: element.transform,

-			animations: element.animations,

-			localTime,

-		});

-		return getVisualElementBounds({

-			canvasWidth,

-			canvasHeight,

-			sourceWidth: element.intrinsicWidth ?? STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK,

-			sourceHeight: element.intrinsicHeight ?? STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK,

-			transform,

-		});

-	}

-

-	if (element.type === "graphic") {

-		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({

-			baseTransform: element.transform,

-			animations: element.animations,

-			localTime,

-		});

-		return getVisualElementBounds({

-			canvasWidth,

-			canvasHeight,

-			sourceWidth: DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE,

-			sourceHeight: DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE,

-			transform,

-		});

-	}

-

-	if (element.type === "text") {

-		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({

-			baseTransform: element.transform,

-			animations: element.animations,

-			localTime,

-		});

-

-		const canvas = document.createElement("canvas");

-		const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d");

-		if (!ctx) return null;

-

-		const measured = measureTextElement({

-			element,

-			canvasHeight,

-			localTime,

-			ctx,

-		});

-

-		return getTransformedRectBounds({

-			canvasWidth,

-			canvasHeight,

-			rect: measured.visualRect,

-			transform,

-		});

-	}

-

-	return null;

-}

-

-export const ROTATION_HANDLE_OFFSET = 24;

-

-export type Corner = "top-left" | "top-right" | "bottom-left" | "bottom-right";

-export type Edge = "right" | "left" | "bottom";

-

-export function getCornerPosition({

-	bounds,

-	corner,

-}: {

-	bounds: ElementBounds;

-	corner: Corner;

-}): { x: number; y: number } {

-	const halfW = bounds.width / 2;

-	const halfH = bounds.height / 2;

-	const angleRad = (bounds.rotation * Math.PI) / 180;

-	const cos = Math.cos(angleRad);

-	const sin = Math.sin(angleRad);

-	const localX =

-		corner === "top-left" || corner === "bottom-left" ? -halfW : halfW;

-	const localY =

-		corner === "top-left" || corner === "top-right" ? -halfH : halfH;

-	return {

-		x: bounds.cx + (localX * cos - localY * sin),

-		y: bounds.cy + (localX * sin + localY * cos),

-	};

-}

-

-export function getEdgeHandlePosition({

-	bounds,

-	edge,

-}: {

-	bounds: ElementBounds;

-	edge: Edge;

-}): { x: number; y: number } {

-	const halfWidth = bounds.width / 2;

-	const halfHeight = bounds.height / 2;

-	const angleRad = (bounds.rotation * Math.PI) / 180;

-	const cos = Math.cos(angleRad);

-	const sin = Math.sin(angleRad);

-	const localX = edge === "right" ? halfWidth : edge === "left" ? -halfWidth : 0;

-	const localY = edge === "bottom" ? halfHeight : 0;

-	return {

-		x: bounds.cx + (localX * cos - localY * sin),

-		y: bounds.cy + (localX * sin + localY * cos),

-	};

-}

-

-export function getVisibleElementsWithBounds({

-	tracks,

-	currentTime,

-	canvasSize,

-	mediaAssets,

-}: {

-	tracks: SceneTracks;

-	currentTime: number;

-	canvasSize: { width: number; height: number };

-	mediaAssets: MediaAsset[];

-}): ElementWithBounds[] {

-	const mediaMap = new Map(mediaAssets.map((m) => [m.id, m]));

-	const orderedTracks = [

-		...tracks.overlay.filter((track) => !("hidden" in track && track.hidden)),

-		...(!tracks.main.hidden ? [tracks.main] : []),

-	].reverse();

-

-	const result: ElementWithBounds[] = [];

-

-	for (const track of orderedTracks) {

-		const elements = track.elements

-			.filter((element) => !("hidden" in element && element.hidden))

-			.filter(

-				(element) =>

-					currentTime >= element.startTime &&

-					currentTime < element.startTime + element.duration,

-			)

-			.slice()

-			.sort((a, b) => {

-				if (a.startTime !== b.startTime) return a.startTime - b.startTime;

-				return a.id.localeCompare(b.id);

-			});

-

-		for (const element of elements) {

-			const localTime = getElementLocalTime({

-				timelineTime: currentTime,

-				elementStartTime: element.startTime,

-				elementDuration: element.duration,

-			});

-			const mediaAsset =

-				element.type === "video" || element.type === "image"

-					? mediaMap.get(element.mediaId)

-					: undefined;

-			const bounds = getElementBounds({

-				element,

-				canvasSize,

-				mediaAsset,

-				localTime,

-			});

-			if (bounds) {

-				result.push({

-					trackId: track.id,

-					elementId: element.id,

-					element,

-					bounds,

-				});

-			}

-		}

-	}

-

-	return result;

-}

+import type { SceneTracks, TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
+import type { MediaAsset } from "@/media/types";
+import { STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK } from "@/stickers/intrinsic-size";
+import { DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE } from "@/graphics";
+import { measureTextElement } from "@/text/measure-element";
+import {
+	getElementLocalTime,
+} from "@/animation";
+import { resolveTransformAtTime } from "@/rendering/animation-values";
+
+export interface ElementBounds {
+	cx: number;
+	cy: number;
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+	rotation: number;
+}
+
+export interface ElementWithBounds {
+	trackId: string;
+	elementId: string;
+	element: TimelineElement;
+	bounds: ElementBounds;
+}
+
+function getVisualElementBounds({
+	canvasWidth,
+	canvasHeight,
+	sourceWidth,
+	sourceHeight,
+	transform,
+}: {
+	canvasWidth: number;
+	canvasHeight: number;
+	sourceWidth: number;
+	sourceHeight: number;
+	transform: {
+		scaleX: number;
+		scaleY: number;
+		position: { x: number; y: number };
+		rotate: number;
+	};
+}): ElementBounds {
+	const containScale = Math.min(
+		canvasWidth / sourceWidth,
+		canvasHeight / sourceHeight,
+	);
+	const scaledWidth = sourceWidth * containScale * transform.scaleX;
+	const scaledHeight = sourceHeight * containScale * transform.scaleY;
+	const cx = canvasWidth / 2 + transform.position.x;
+	const cy = canvasHeight / 2 + transform.position.y;
+
+	return {
+		cx,
+		cy,
+		width: scaledWidth,
+		height: scaledHeight,
+		rotation: transform.rotate,
+	};
+}
+
+function getTransformedRectBounds({
+	canvasWidth,
+	canvasHeight,
+	rect,
+	transform,
+}: {
+	canvasWidth: number;
+	canvasHeight: number;
+	rect: { left: number; top: number; width: number; height: number };
+	transform: {
+		scaleX: number;
+		scaleY: number;
+		position: { x: number; y: number };
+		rotate: number;
+	};
+}): ElementBounds {
+	const localCenterX = rect.left + rect.width / 2;
+	const localCenterY = rect.top + rect.height / 2;
+	const scaledCenterX = localCenterX * transform.scaleX;
+	const scaledCenterY = localCenterY * transform.scaleY;
+	const rotationRad = (transform.rotate * Math.PI) / 180;
+	const cos = Math.cos(rotationRad);
+	const sin = Math.sin(rotationRad);
+	return {
+		cx:
+			canvasWidth / 2 +
+			transform.position.x +
+			scaledCenterX * cos -
+			scaledCenterY * sin,
+		cy:
+			canvasHeight / 2 +
+			transform.position.y +
+			scaledCenterX * sin +
+			scaledCenterY * cos,
+		width: rect.width * transform.scaleX,
+		height: rect.height * transform.scaleY,
+		rotation: transform.rotate,
+	};
+}
+
+/**
+ * Bounds policy: bounds reflect base content geometry (text glyphs + background,
+ * sticker/image/video content area) and base transform. Post-effect spill (blur,
+ * glow) and mask-clipped regions are intentionally excluded — handles manipulate
+ * the canonical element geometry, not visual effect output.
+ */
+function getElementBounds({
+	element,
+	canvasSize,
+	mediaAsset,
+	localTime,
+}: {
+	element: TimelineElement;
+	canvasSize: { width: number; height: number };
+	mediaAsset?: MediaAsset | null;
+	localTime: number;
+}): ElementBounds | null {
+	if (element.type === "audio" || element.type === "effect") return null;
+	if ("hidden" in element && element.hidden) return null;
+
+	const { width: canvasWidth, height: canvasHeight } = canvasSize;
+
+	if (element.type === "video" || element.type === "image") {
+		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({
+			baseTransform: element.transform,
+			animations: element.animations,
+			localTime,
+		});
+		const sourceWidth = mediaAsset?.width ?? canvasWidth;
+		const sourceHeight = mediaAsset?.height ?? canvasHeight;
+		return getVisualElementBounds({
+			canvasWidth,
+			canvasHeight,
+			sourceWidth,
+			sourceHeight,
+			transform,
+		});
+	}
+
+	if (element.type === "sticker") {
+		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({
+			baseTransform: element.transform,
+			animations: element.animations,
+			localTime,
+		});
+		return getVisualElementBounds({
+			canvasWidth,
+			canvasHeight,
+			sourceWidth: element.intrinsicWidth ?? STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK,
+			sourceHeight: element.intrinsicHeight ?? STICKER_INTRINSIC_SIZE_FALLBACK,
+			transform,
+		});
+	}
+
+	if (element.type === "graphic") {
+		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({
+			baseTransform: element.transform,
+			animations: element.animations,
+			localTime,
+		});
+		return getVisualElementBounds({
+			canvasWidth,
+			canvasHeight,
+			sourceWidth: DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE,
+			sourceHeight: DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE,
+			transform,
+		});
+	}
+
+	if (element.type === "text") {
+		const transform = resolveTransformAtTime({
+			baseTransform: element.transform,
+			animations: element.animations,
+			localTime,
+		});
+
+		const canvas = document.createElement("canvas");
+		const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d");
+		if (!ctx) return null;
+
+		const measured = measureTextElement({
+			element,
+			canvasHeight,
+			localTime,
+			ctx,
+		});
+
+		return getTransformedRectBounds({
+			canvasWidth,
+			canvasHeight,
+			rect: measured.visualRect,
+			transform,
+		});
+	}
+
+	return null;
+}
+
+export const ROTATION_HANDLE_OFFSET = 24;
+
+export type Corner = "top-left" | "top-right" | "bottom-left" | "bottom-right";
+export type Edge = "right" | "left" | "bottom";
+
+export function getCornerPosition({
+	bounds,
+	corner,
+}: {
+	bounds: ElementBounds;
+	corner: Corner;
+}): { x: number; y: number } {
+	const halfW = bounds.width / 2;
+	const halfH = bounds.height / 2;
+	const angleRad = (bounds.rotation * Math.PI) / 180;
+	const cos = Math.cos(angleRad);
+	const sin = Math.sin(angleRad);
+	const localX =
+		corner === "top-left" || corner === "bottom-left" ? -halfW : halfW;
+	const localY =
+		corner === "top-left" || corner === "top-right" ? -halfH : halfH;
+	return {
+		x: bounds.cx + (localX * cos - localY * sin),
+		y: bounds.cy + (localX * sin + localY * cos),
+	};
+}
+
+export function getEdgeHandlePosition({
+	bounds,
+	edge,
+}: {
+	bounds: ElementBounds;
+	edge: Edge;
+}): { x: number; y: number } {
+	const halfWidth = bounds.width / 2;
+	const halfHeight = bounds.height / 2;
+	const angleRad = (bounds.rotation * Math.PI) / 180;
+	const cos = Math.cos(angleRad);
+	const sin = Math.sin(angleRad);
+	const localX = edge === "right" ? halfWidth : edge === "left" ? -halfWidth : 0;
+	const localY = edge === "bottom" ? halfHeight : 0;
+	return {
+		x: bounds.cx + (localX * cos - localY * sin),
+		y: bounds.cy + (localX * sin + localY * cos),
+	};
+}
+
+export function getVisibleElementsWithBounds({
+	tracks,
+	currentTime,
+	canvasSize,
+	mediaAssets,
+}: {
+	tracks: SceneTracks;
+	currentTime: number;
+	canvasSize: { width: number; height: number };
+	mediaAssets: MediaAsset[];
+}): ElementWithBounds[] {
+	const mediaMap = new Map(mediaAssets.map((m) => [m.id, m]));
+	const orderedTracks = [
+		...tracks.overlay.filter((track) => !("hidden" in track && track.hidden)),
+		...(!tracks.main.hidden ? [tracks.main] : []),
+	].reverse();
+
+	const result: ElementWithBounds[] = [];
+
+	for (const track of orderedTracks) {
+		const elements = track.elements
+			.filter((element) => !("hidden" in element && element.hidden))
+			.filter(
+				(element) =>
+					currentTime >= element.startTime &&
+					currentTime < element.startTime + element.duration,
+			)
+			.slice()
+			.sort((a, b) => {
+				if (a.startTime !== b.startTime) return a.startTime - b.startTime;
+				return a.id.localeCompare(b.id);
+			});
+
+		for (const element of elements) {
+			const localTime = getElementLocalTime({
+				timelineTime: currentTime,
+				elementStartTime: element.startTime,
+				elementDuration: element.duration,
+			});
+			const mediaAsset =
+				element.type === "video" || element.type === "image"
+					? mediaMap.get(element.mediaId)
+					: undefined;
+			const bounds = getElementBounds({
+				element,
+				canvasSize,
+				mediaAsset,
+				localTime,
+			});
+			if (bounds) {
+				result.push({
+					trackId: track.id,
+					elementId: element.id,
+					element,
+					bounds,
+				});
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	return result;
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/rendering/NOTES.md b/apps/web/src/rendering/NOTES.md
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..38055c14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/rendering/NOTES.md
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# Notes
+
+## `Transform` is misplaced
+
+`Transform` is currently defined in `apps/web/src/rendering/index.ts`. It's
+exported from the rendering domain because rendering happens to be one of its
+consumers — but every other domain that touches scene geometry consumes it too
+(`@/timeline`, `@/preview`, `@/animation/values`, `@/text`, etc.). It's not
+"of" rendering any more than `Vector2` would be "of" math.
+
+`Transform` is closer to a primitive than a domain concept. It's infrastructure:
+a small value type with no behavior, no dependencies, no domain-specific
+invariants. Anything that wants to position something on a 2D canvas needs it.
+
+The codebase should be refactored so it's defined lower-level, rather than
+sitting in a domain. Candidate homes:
+
+- `apps/web/src/primitives/transform.ts` (new dir for these value types)
+- `apps/web/src/geometry/transform.ts` if `Vector2` and friends end up there
+- `apps/web/src/rendering/transform.ts` is acceptable only if `@/rendering`
+becomes a primitives folder rather than a domain (it's borderline today —
+it also exports `BlendMode`, which has the same problem).
+
+Side effect of fixing this: `@/rendering/animation-values.ts` (which exists
+only because `Transform` lives next to it) can move into `@/animation/values.ts`
+alongside the other resolve-at-time helpers, since `Transform` would no longer
+pull in a domain dependency.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/apps/web/src/rendering/animation-values.ts b/apps/web/src/rendering/animation-values.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8e8b4528
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/rendering/animation-values.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+import type { ElementAnimations } from "@/animation/types";
+import { resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime } from "@/animation";
+import type { Transform } from "./index";
+
+export function resolveTransformAtTime({
+	baseTransform,
+	animations,
+	localTime,
+}: {
+	baseTransform: Transform;
+	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
+	localTime: number;
+}): Transform {
+	const safeLocalTime = Math.max(0, localTime);
+	return {
+		position: {
+			x: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+				animations,
+				propertyPath: "transform.positionX",
+				localTime: safeLocalTime,
+				fallbackValue: baseTransform.position.x,
+			}),
+			y: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+				animations,
+				propertyPath: "transform.positionY",
+				localTime: safeLocalTime,
+				fallbackValue: baseTransform.position.y,
+			}),
+		},
+		scaleX: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+			animations,
+			propertyPath: "transform.scaleX",
+			localTime: safeLocalTime,
+			fallbackValue: baseTransform.scaleX,
+		}),
+		scaleY: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+			animations,
+			propertyPath: "transform.scaleY",
+			localTime: safeLocalTime,
+			fallbackValue: baseTransform.scaleY,
+		}),
+		rotate: resolveAnimationPathValueAtTime({
+			animations,
+			propertyPath: "transform.rotate",
+			localTime: safeLocalTime,
+			fallbackValue: baseTransform.rotate,
+		}),
+	};
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/rendering/components/blending-tab.tsx b/apps/web/src/rendering/components/blending-tab.tsx
index 870390bf..52d2f051 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/rendering/components/blending-tab.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/rendering/components/blending-tab.tsx
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ import { RainDropIcon } from "@hugeicons/core-free-icons";
 import { KeyframeToggle } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/components/keyframe-toggle";
 import { useKeyframedNumberProperty } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-number-property";
 import { useElementPlayhead } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-element-playhead";
-import { resolveOpacityAtTime } from "@/animation";
+import { resolveOpacityAtTime } from "@/animation/values";
 import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
 import { isPropertyAtDefault } from "./transform-tab";
 import type { MediaTime } from "@/wasm";
diff --git a/apps/web/src/rendering/components/transform-tab.tsx b/apps/web/src/rendering/components/transform-tab.tsx
index 60d4c7df..f4d5a183 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/rendering/components/transform-tab.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/rendering/components/transform-tab.tsx
@@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ import {
 import {
 	getGroupKeyframesAtTime,
 	hasGroupKeyframeAtTime,
-	resolveTransformAtTime,
 } from "@/animation";
+import { resolveTransformAtTime } from "@/rendering/animation-values";
 import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
 import { useElementPlayhead } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-element-playhead";
 import { KeyframeToggle } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/components/keyframe-toggle";
diff --git a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/canvas-renderer.ts b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/canvas-renderer.ts
index 50f7fd12..4a002675 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/canvas-renderer.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/canvas-renderer.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,11 @@ import type { AnyBaseNode } from "./nodes/base-node";
 import { buildFrameDescriptor } from "./compositor/frame-descriptor";
 import { wasmCompositor } from "./compositor/wasm-compositor";
 import { resolveRenderTree } from "./resolve";
+import {
+	measureSpanAsync,
+	measureSpanSync,
+	onRenderPerfFrameComplete,
+} from "@/diagnostics/render-perf";
 
 export type CanvasRendererParams = {
 	width: number;
@@ -69,17 +74,26 @@ export class CanvasRenderer {
 	}
 
 	async render({ node, time }: { node: AnyBaseNode; time: number }) {
-		await resolveRenderTree({ node, renderer: this, time });
-		const { frame, textures } = await buildFrameDescriptor({
-			node,
-			renderer: this,
+		await measureSpanAsync({
+			name: "resolve",
+			fn: () => resolveRenderTree({ node, renderer: this, time }),
+		});
+		const { frame, textures } = await measureSpanAsync({
+			name: "buildFrame",
+			fn: () => buildFrameDescriptor({ node, renderer: this }),
 		});
 		wasmCompositor.ensureInitialized({
 			width: this.width,
 			height: this.height,
 		});
-		wasmCompositor.syncTextures(textures);
-		wasmCompositor.render(frame);
+		measureSpanSync({
+			name: "syncTextures",
+			fn: () => wasmCompositor.syncTextures(textures),
+		});
+		measureSpanSync({
+			name: "renderFrame",
+			fn: () => wasmCompositor.render(frame),
+		});
 	}
 
 	async renderToCanvas({
@@ -98,12 +112,17 @@ export class CanvasRenderer {
 			throw new Error("Failed to get target canvas context");
 		}
 
-		ctx.drawImage(
-			wasmCompositor.getCanvas(),
-			0,
-			0,
-			targetCanvas.width,
-			targetCanvas.height,
-		);
+		measureSpanSync({
+			name: "drawImage",
+			fn: () =>
+				ctx.drawImage(
+					wasmCompositor.getCanvas(),
+					0,
+					0,
+					targetCanvas.width,
+					targetCanvas.height,
+				),
+		});
+		onRenderPerfFrameComplete();
 	}
 }
diff --git a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/frame-descriptor.ts b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/frame-descriptor.ts
index 666bea03..190a0237 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/frame-descriptor.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/frame-descriptor.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import { drawCssBackground } from "@/gradients";
 import { masksRegistry } from "@/masks";
+import { incrementCounter } from "@/diagnostics/render-perf";
 import type { AnyBaseNode } from "../nodes/base-node";
 import type { CanvasRenderer } from "../canvas-renderer";
 import { createOffscreenCanvas } from "../canvas-utils";
@@ -21,16 +22,11 @@ import type {
 	FrameItemDescriptor,
 	LayerMaskDescriptor,
 	QuadTransformDescriptor,
+	TextureCanvasDrawFn,
+	TextureUploadDescriptor,
 } from "./types";
 import { DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE } from "@/graphics";
 
-export type TextureUploadDescriptor = {
-	id: string;
-	source: CanvasImageSource;
-	width: number;
-	height: number;
-};
-
 export async function buildFrameDescriptor({
 	node,
 	renderer,
@@ -52,6 +48,9 @@ export async function buildFrameDescriptor({
 		textures,
 	});
 
+	incrementCounter({ name: "frameItems", by: items.length });
+	incrementCounter({ name: "frameTextures", by: textures.size });
+
 	return {
 		frame: {
 			width: renderer.width,
@@ -93,31 +92,21 @@ async function collectNode({
 
 	if (node instanceof ColorNode) {
 		const textureId = `${path}:color`;
-		const canvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-			width: renderer.width,
-			height: renderer.height,
-		});
-		const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d") as
-			| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| null;
-		if (!ctx) return;
-		if (/gradient\(/i.test(node.params.color)) {
-			drawCssBackground({
-				ctx,
-				width: renderer.width,
-				height: renderer.height,
-				css: node.params.color,
-			});
-		} else {
-			ctx.fillStyle = node.params.color;
-			ctx.fillRect(0, 0, renderer.width, renderer.height);
-		}
+		const { width, height } = renderer;
 		textures.set(textureId, {
+			kind: "rendered",
 			id: textureId,
-			source: canvas,
-			width: renderer.width,
-			height: renderer.height,
+			contentHash: `color:${node.params.color}:${width}x${height}`,
+			width,
+			height,
+			draw: (ctx) => {
+				if (/gradient\(/i.test(node.params.color)) {
+					drawCssBackground({ ctx, width, height, css: node.params.color });
+				} else {
+					ctx.fillStyle = node.params.color;
+					ctx.fillRect(0, 0, width, height);
+				}
+			},
 		});
 		items.push({
 			type: "layer",
@@ -147,36 +136,35 @@ async function collectNode({
 			return;
 		}
 		const textureId = `${path}:blur-background`;
-		const backdropCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-			width: renderer.width,
-			height: renderer.height,
-		});
-		const backdropCtx = backdropCanvas.getContext("2d") as
-			| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| null;
-		if (!backdropCtx) return;
+		const { width, height } = renderer;
 		const { backdropSource, passes } = node.resolved;
-		const coverScale = Math.max(
-			renderer.width / backdropSource.width,
-			renderer.height / backdropSource.height,
-		);
-		const scaledWidth = backdropSource.width * coverScale;
-		const scaledHeight = backdropSource.height * coverScale;
-		const offsetX = (renderer.width - scaledWidth) / 2;
-		const offsetY = (renderer.height - scaledHeight) / 2;
-		backdropCtx.drawImage(
-			backdropSource.source,
-			offsetX,
-			offsetY,
-			scaledWidth,
-			scaledHeight,
-		);
+		// Backdrop pixels come from a decoded video/image frame whose identity
+		// already changes when it changes. Hashing the source reference is
+		// enough to let us skip redraws on frozen frames.
+		const contentHash = `blur:${identityKey(backdropSource.source)}:${backdropSource.width}x${backdropSource.height}:${width}x${height}`;
 		textures.set(textureId, {
+			kind: "rendered",
 			id: textureId,
-			source: backdropCanvas,
-			width: renderer.width,
-			height: renderer.height,
+			contentHash,
+			width,
+			height,
+			draw: (ctx) => {
+				const coverScale = Math.max(
+					width / backdropSource.width,
+					height / backdropSource.height,
+				);
+				const scaledWidth = backdropSource.width * coverScale;
+				const scaledHeight = backdropSource.height * coverScale;
+				const offsetX = (width - scaledWidth) / 2;
+				const offsetY = (height - scaledHeight) / 2;
+				ctx.drawImage(
+					backdropSource.source,
+					offsetX,
+					offsetY,
+					scaledWidth,
+					scaledHeight,
+				);
+			},
 		});
 		items.push({
 			type: "layer",
@@ -253,6 +241,7 @@ async function collectVisualSourceNode({
 
 	const textureId = `${path}:source`;
 	textures.set(textureId, {
+		kind: "external",
 		id: textureId,
 		source,
 		width: sourceWidth,
@@ -305,28 +294,24 @@ function collectTextNode({
 	}
 
 	const textureId = `${path}:text`;
-	const canvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-		width: renderer.width,
-		height: renderer.height,
-	});
-	const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d") as
-		| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| null;
-	if (!ctx) {
-		return;
-	}
-
-	renderTextToContext({
-		node,
-		ctx,
-	});
-
+	const { width, height } = renderer;
+	// Text output is fully determined by node.params + node.resolved. Both are
+	// plain data we can stringify cheaply; the resolved measured layout is the
+	// expensive part of text setup, so stringifying it here is orders of
+	// magnitude cheaper than re-rasterizing when nothing changed.
+	const contentHash = `text:${width}x${height}:${JSON.stringify({
+		params: node.params,
+		resolved: node.resolved,
+	})}`;
 	textures.set(textureId, {
+		kind: "rendered",
 		id: textureId,
-		source: canvas,
-		width: renderer.width,
-		height: renderer.height,
+		contentHash,
+		width,
+		height,
+		draw: (ctx) => {
+			renderTextToContext({ node, ctx });
+		},
 	});
 	items.push({
 		type: "layer",
@@ -411,20 +396,6 @@ function buildMaskArtifacts({
 		return { mask: null, strokeLayer: null };
 	}
 
-	const elementMaskCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-		width: Math.round(transform.width),
-		height: Math.round(transform.height),
-	});
-	const elementMaskCtx = elementMaskCanvas.getContext("2d") as
-		| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| null;
-	if (!elementMaskCtx) {
-		return { mask: null, strokeLayer: null };
-	}
-	elementMaskCtx.clearRect(0, 0, transform.width, transform.height);
-
-	let strokePath: Path2D | null = null;
 	let feather = mask.params.feather;
 	const canRenderMaskDirectly = Boolean(definition.renderer.renderMask);
 	const shouldRenderMaskDirectly =
@@ -432,81 +403,78 @@ function buildMaskArtifacts({
 		(!definition.renderer.buildPath ||
 			(mask.params.feather > 0 &&
 				definition.renderer.renderMaskHandlesFeather));
-	if (shouldRenderMaskDirectly && definition.renderer.renderMask) {
-		definition.renderer.renderMask({
-			resolvedParams: mask.params,
-			ctx: elementMaskCtx,
+	if (
+		shouldRenderMaskDirectly &&
+		definition.renderer.renderMaskHandlesFeather
+	) {
+		feather = 0;
+	}
+
+	const maskTextureId = `${path}:mask`;
+	const { width: canvasWidth, height: canvasHeight } = renderer;
+	const maskContentHash = `mask:${mask.type}:${JSON.stringify(mask.params)}:${transformHash(transform)}:${canvasWidth}x${canvasHeight}:direct=${shouldRenderMaskDirectly}`;
+	const drawMask: TextureCanvasDrawFn = (ctx) => {
+		const elementMaskCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
 			width: Math.round(transform.width),
 			height: Math.round(transform.height),
-			feather: mask.params.feather,
 		});
-		if (definition.renderer.renderMaskHandlesFeather) {
-			feather = 0;
-		}
-		strokePath =
-			definition.renderer.buildStrokePath?.({
+		const elementMaskCtx = elementMaskCanvas.getContext("2d") as
+			| CanvasRenderingContext2D
+			| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
+			| null;
+		if (!elementMaskCtx) return;
+
+		if (shouldRenderMaskDirectly && definition.renderer.renderMask) {
+			definition.renderer.renderMask({
 				resolvedParams: mask.params,
-				width: transform.width,
-				height: transform.height,
-			}) ?? null;
-	} else {
-		if (!definition.renderer.buildPath) {
-			return { mask: null, strokeLayer: null };
-		}
-		const path2d = definition.renderer.buildPath({
-			resolvedParams: mask.params,
-			width: transform.width,
-			height: transform.height,
-		});
-		elementMaskCtx.fillStyle = "white";
-		elementMaskCtx.fill(path2d);
-		strokePath =
-			definition.renderer.buildStrokePath?.({
+				ctx: elementMaskCtx,
+				width: Math.round(transform.width),
+				height: Math.round(transform.height),
+				feather: mask.params.feather,
+			});
+		} else if (definition.renderer.buildPath) {
+			const path2d = definition.renderer.buildPath({
 				resolvedParams: mask.params,
 				width: transform.width,
 				height: transform.height,
-			}) ?? path2d;
-	}
-
-	const fullMaskCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-		width: renderer.width,
-		height: renderer.height,
-	});
-	const fullMaskCtx = fullMaskCanvas.getContext("2d") as
-		| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-		| null;
-	if (!fullMaskCtx) {
-		return { mask: null, strokeLayer: null };
-	}
-	drawTransformedCanvas({
-		ctx: fullMaskCtx,
-		source: elementMaskCanvas,
-		transform,
-	});
+			});
+			elementMaskCtx.fillStyle = "white";
+			elementMaskCtx.fill(path2d);
+		} else {
+			return;
+		}
 
-	const maskTextureId = `${path}:mask`;
+		drawTransformedCanvas({ ctx, source: elementMaskCanvas, transform });
+	};
 	textures.set(maskTextureId, {
+		kind: "rendered",
 		id: maskTextureId,
-		source: fullMaskCanvas,
-		width: renderer.width,
-		height: renderer.height,
+		contentHash: maskContentHash,
+		width: canvasWidth,
+		height: canvasHeight,
+		draw: drawMask,
 	});
 
-	let strokeLayer: FrameItemDescriptor | null = null;
-	if (
+	const hasStroke =
 		mask.params.strokeWidth > 0 &&
-		(strokePath || definition.renderer.renderStroke)
-	) {
-		const strokeCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-			width: Math.round(transform.width),
-			height: Math.round(transform.height),
-		});
-		const strokeCtx = strokeCanvas.getContext("2d") as
-			| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-			| null;
-		if (strokeCtx) {
+		(definition.renderer.renderStroke ||
+			definition.renderer.buildStrokePath ||
+			definition.renderer.buildPath);
+	let strokeLayer: FrameItemDescriptor | null = null;
+	if (hasStroke) {
+		const strokeTextureId = `${path}:mask-stroke`;
+		const strokeContentHash = `stroke:${mask.type}:${JSON.stringify(mask.params)}:${transformHash(transform)}:${canvasWidth}x${canvasHeight}`;
+		const drawStroke: TextureCanvasDrawFn = (ctx) => {
+			const strokeCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
+				width: Math.round(transform.width),
+				height: Math.round(transform.height),
+			});
+			const strokeCtx = strokeCanvas.getContext("2d") as
+				| CanvasRenderingContext2D
+				| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
+				| null;
+			if (!strokeCtx) return;
+
 			if (definition.renderer.renderStroke) {
 				definition.renderer.renderStroke({
 					resolvedParams: mask.params,
@@ -514,44 +482,44 @@ function buildMaskArtifacts({
 					width: transform.width,
 					height: transform.height,
 				});
-			} else if (strokePath) {
+			} else {
+				const strokePath =
+					definition.renderer.buildStrokePath?.({
+						resolvedParams: mask.params,
+						width: transform.width,
+						height: transform.height,
+					}) ??
+					definition.renderer.buildPath?.({
+						resolvedParams: mask.params,
+						width: transform.width,
+						height: transform.height,
+					}) ??
+					null;
+				if (!strokePath) return;
 				strokeCtx.strokeStyle = mask.params.strokeColor;
 				strokeCtx.lineWidth = mask.params.strokeWidth;
 				strokeCtx.stroke(strokePath);
 			}
 
-			const fullStrokeCanvas = createOffscreenCanvas({
-				width: renderer.width,
-				height: renderer.height,
-			});
-			const fullStrokeCtx = fullStrokeCanvas.getContext("2d") as
-				| CanvasRenderingContext2D
-				| OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D
-				| null;
-			if (fullStrokeCtx) {
-				drawTransformedCanvas({
-					ctx: fullStrokeCtx,
-					source: strokeCanvas,
-					transform,
-				});
-				const strokeTextureId = `${path}:mask-stroke`;
-				textures.set(strokeTextureId, {
-					id: strokeTextureId,
-					source: fullStrokeCanvas,
-					width: renderer.width,
-					height: renderer.height,
-				});
-				strokeLayer = {
-					type: "layer",
-					textureId: strokeTextureId,
-					transform: fullCanvasTransform(renderer),
-					opacity: 1,
-					blendMode: "normal",
-					effectPassGroups: [],
-					mask: null,
-				};
-			}
-		}
+			drawTransformedCanvas({ ctx, source: strokeCanvas, transform });
+		};
+		textures.set(strokeTextureId, {
+			kind: "rendered",
+			id: strokeTextureId,
+			contentHash: strokeContentHash,
+			width: canvasWidth,
+			height: canvasHeight,
+			draw: drawStroke,
+		});
+		strokeLayer = {
+			type: "layer",
+			textureId: strokeTextureId,
+			transform: fullCanvasTransform(renderer),
+			opacity: 1,
+			blendMode: "normal",
+			effectPassGroups: [],
+			mask: null,
+		};
 	}
 
 	return {
@@ -590,3 +558,23 @@ function drawTransformedCanvas({
 	ctx.drawImage(source, x, y, transform.width, transform.height);
 	ctx.restore();
 }
+
+function transformHash(transform: QuadTransformDescriptor): string {
+	return `${transform.centerX}:${transform.centerY}:${transform.width}:${transform.height}:${transform.rotationDegrees}:${transform.flipX ? 1 : 0}:${transform.flipY ? 1 : 0}`;
+}
+
+// Stable identity key for CanvasImageSource. Using a WeakMap → counter keeps
+// hash string length bounded and avoids holding sources alive.
+const identityKeys = new WeakMap<object, number>();
+let nextIdentity = 1;
+function identityKey(source: CanvasImageSource): string {
+	if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null) {
+		let key = identityKeys.get(source);
+		if (key === undefined) {
+			key = nextIdentity++;
+			identityKeys.set(source, key);
+		}
+		return `@${key}`;
+	}
+	return "@?";
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/types.ts b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/types.ts
index af5a58c2..1a509909 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/types.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/types.ts
@@ -40,3 +40,39 @@ export type LayerMaskDescriptor = {
 	feather: number;
 	inverted: boolean;
 };
+
+export type TextureCanvasDrawFn = (
+	ctx: CanvasRenderingContext2D | OffscreenCanvasRenderingContext2D,
+) => void;
+
+/**
+ * A layer texture whose pixels come from somewhere outside the renderer —
+ * typically a decoded video/image frame or a sticker. Cached by reference
+ * identity of the source object.
+ */
+export type ExternalTextureDescriptor = {
+	kind: "external";
+	id: string;
+	source: CanvasImageSource;
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+};
+
+/**
+ * A layer texture that the renderer rasterizes from scene state (color fill,
+ * text layout, mask shape, blur backdrop). Cached by `contentHash`: when it
+ * matches the previous frame's hash for this id, the upload is skipped
+ * entirely and the persistent canvas is not even cleared.
+ */
+export type RenderedTextureDescriptor = {
+	kind: "rendered";
+	id: string;
+	contentHash: string;
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+	draw: TextureCanvasDrawFn;
+};
+
+export type TextureUploadDescriptor =
+	| ExternalTextureDescriptor
+	| RenderedTextureDescriptor;
diff --git a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/wasm-compositor.ts b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/wasm-compositor.ts
index 16b03853..10684f11 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/wasm-compositor.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/compositor/wasm-compositor.ts
@@ -1,44 +1,39 @@
 import {
 	getCompositorCanvas,
+	getLastFrameProfile,
 	initCompositor,
 	releaseTexture,
 	renderFrame,
 	resizeCompositor,
 	uploadTexture,
 } from "opencut-wasm";
-import type { FrameDescriptor } from "./types";
+import {
+	incrementCounter,
+	isRenderPerfEnabled,
+	recordWasmFrameProfile,
+} from "@/diagnostics/render-perf";
+import type {
+	ExternalTextureDescriptor,
+	FrameDescriptor,
+	RenderedTextureDescriptor,
+	TextureUploadDescriptor,
+} from "./types";
 
-function ensureOffscreenCanvas({
-	source,
-	width,
-	height,
-	label,
-}: {
-	source: CanvasImageSource;
+/**
+ * One slot in the derived-texture cache. The OffscreenCanvas is persistent —
+ * we reuse and redraw into it across frames, which is the change that takes
+ * the WebGL upload path off the per-frame critical path for static content.
+ */
+type RenderedCacheEntry = {
+	kind: "rendered";
+	canvas: OffscreenCanvas;
+	contentHash: string;
 	width: number;
 	height: number;
-	label: string;
-}): OffscreenCanvas {
-	if (source instanceof OffscreenCanvas) {
-		return source;
-	}
-
-	if (typeof OffscreenCanvas === "undefined") {
-		throw new Error(`OffscreenCanvas is required for ${label}`);
-	}
-
-	const canvas = new OffscreenCanvas(width, height);
-	const context = canvas.getContext("2d");
-	if (!context) {
-		throw new Error(`Failed to get 2d context for ${label}`);
-	}
-	context.clearRect(0, 0, width, height);
-	context.drawImage(source, 0, 0, width, height);
-	return canvas;
-}
+};
 
-export type TextureUploadDescriptor = {
-	id: string;
+type ExternalCacheEntry = {
+	kind: "external";
 	source: CanvasImageSource;
 	width: number;
 	height: number;
@@ -47,11 +42,7 @@ export type TextureUploadDescriptor = {
 class WasmCompositor {
 	private canvas: HTMLCanvasElement | null = null;
 	private initializedSize: { width: number; height: number } | null = null;
-	private retainedTextureIds = new Set<string>();
-	private uploadedTextures = new Map<
-		string,
-		{ source: CanvasImageSource; width: number; height: number }
-	>();
+	private cache = new Map<string, RenderedCacheEntry | ExternalCacheEntry>();
 
 	ensureInitialized({ width, height }: { width: number; height: number }) {
 		if (!this.canvas) {
@@ -80,48 +71,157 @@ class WasmCompositor {
 
 	syncTextures(textures: TextureUploadDescriptor[]) {
 		const nextIds = new Set(textures.map((texture) => texture.id));
-		for (const previousId of this.retainedTextureIds) {
+		for (const previousId of this.cache.keys()) {
 			if (!nextIds.has(previousId)) {
 				releaseTexture(previousId);
-				this.uploadedTextures.delete(previousId);
+				this.cache.delete(previousId);
 			}
 		}
 
 		for (const texture of textures) {
-			const previousTexture = this.uploadedTextures.get(texture.id);
-			if (
-				previousTexture?.source === texture.source &&
-				previousTexture.width === texture.width &&
-				previousTexture.height === texture.height
-			) {
-				continue;
+			if (texture.kind === "external") {
+				this.syncExternalTexture(texture);
+			} else {
+				this.syncRenderedTexture(texture);
 			}
+		}
+	}
 
-			const sourceCanvas = ensureOffscreenCanvas({
+	render(frame: FrameDescriptor) {
+		renderFrame(frame);
+		if (isRenderPerfEnabled()) {
+			recordWasmFrameProfile(
+				getLastFrameProfile() as Array<{ name: string; durationMs: number }>,
+			);
+		}
+	}
+
+	private syncExternalTexture(texture: ExternalTextureDescriptor) {
+		const previous = this.cache.get(texture.id);
+		if (
+			previous?.kind === "external" &&
+			previous.source === texture.source &&
+			previous.width === texture.width &&
+			previous.height === texture.height
+		) {
+			incrementCounter({ name: "textureCacheHit" });
+			return;
+		}
+
+		incrementCounter({ name: "textureUpload" });
+		incrementCounter({
+			name: "textureUploadPixels",
+			by: texture.width * texture.height,
+		});
+		uploadTexture({
+			id: texture.id,
+			source: ensureOffscreenCanvas({
 				source: texture.source,
 				width: texture.width,
 				height: texture.height,
 				label: `texture upload ${texture.id}`,
-			});
-			uploadTexture({
-				id: texture.id,
-				source: sourceCanvas,
-				width: texture.width,
-				height: texture.height,
-			});
-			this.uploadedTextures.set(texture.id, {
-				source: texture.source,
-				width: texture.width,
-				height: texture.height,
-			});
+			}),
+			width: texture.width,
+			height: texture.height,
+		});
+		this.cache.set(texture.id, {
+			kind: "external",
+			source: texture.source,
+			width: texture.width,
+			height: texture.height,
+		});
+	}
+
+	private syncRenderedTexture(texture: RenderedTextureDescriptor) {
+		const previous = this.cache.get(texture.id);
+		if (
+			previous?.kind === "rendered" &&
+			previous.contentHash === texture.contentHash &&
+			previous.width === texture.width &&
+			previous.height === texture.height
+		) {
+			incrementCounter({ name: "textureCacheHit" });
+			return;
 		}
 
-		this.retainedTextureIds = nextIds;
-	}
+		const canvas =
+			previous?.kind === "rendered" &&
+			previous.width === texture.width &&
+			previous.height === texture.height
+				? previous.canvas
+				: createBackingCanvas({
+						width: texture.width,
+						height: texture.height,
+					});
 
-	render(frame: FrameDescriptor) {
-		renderFrame(frame);
+		const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d");
+		if (!ctx) {
+			throw new Error(`Failed to get 2d context for texture ${texture.id}`);
+		}
+		ctx.clearRect(0, 0, texture.width, texture.height);
+		texture.draw(ctx);
+
+		incrementCounter({ name: "textureUpload" });
+		incrementCounter({
+			name: "textureUploadPixels",
+			by: texture.width * texture.height,
+		});
+		uploadTexture({
+			id: texture.id,
+			source: canvas,
+			width: texture.width,
+			height: texture.height,
+		});
+		this.cache.set(texture.id, {
+			kind: "rendered",
+			canvas,
+			contentHash: texture.contentHash,
+			width: texture.width,
+			height: texture.height,
+		});
 	}
 }
 
 export const wasmCompositor = new WasmCompositor();
+
+function createBackingCanvas({
+	width,
+	height,
+}: {
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+}): OffscreenCanvas {
+	if (typeof OffscreenCanvas === "undefined") {
+		throw new Error("OffscreenCanvas is not supported in this environment");
+	}
+	return new OffscreenCanvas(width, height);
+}
+
+function ensureOffscreenCanvas({
+	source,
+	width,
+	height,
+	label,
+}: {
+	source: CanvasImageSource;
+	width: number;
+	height: number;
+	label: string;
+}): OffscreenCanvas {
+	if (source instanceof OffscreenCanvas) {
+		return source;
+	}
+
+	if (typeof OffscreenCanvas === "undefined") {
+		throw new Error(`OffscreenCanvas is required for ${label}`);
+	}
+
+	const canvas = new OffscreenCanvas(width, height);
+	const context = canvas.getContext("2d");
+	if (!context) {
+		throw new Error(`Failed to get 2d context for ${label}`);
+	}
+	context.clearRect(0, 0, width, height);
+	context.drawImage(source, 0, 0, width, height);
+	return canvas;
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/resolve.ts b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/resolve.ts
index 0623b399..36a6ecb5 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/services/renderer/resolve.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/services/renderer/resolve.ts
@@ -1,11 +1,5 @@
 import { mediaTimeToSeconds, roundMediaTime } from "@/wasm";
-import {
-	getElementLocalTime,
-	resolveColorAtTime,
-	resolveGraphicParamsAtTime,
-	resolveOpacityAtTime,
-	resolveTransformAtTime,
-} from "@/animation";
+import { getElementLocalTime } from "@/animation";
 import { resolveEffectParamsAtTime } from "@/animation/effect-param-channel";
 import {
 	buildGaussianBlurPasses,
@@ -14,11 +8,16 @@ import {
 import { effectsRegistry, resolveEffectPasses } from "@/effects";
 import type { Effect, EffectPass } from "@/effects/types";
 import { getSourceTimeAtClipTime } from "@/retime";
-import { DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE } from "@/graphics";
+import {
+	DEFAULT_GRAPHIC_SOURCE_SIZE,
+	resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime,
+} from "@/graphics";
 import {
 	getTextMeasurementContext,
 	measureTextElement,
 } from "@/text/measure-element";
+import { resolveColorAtTime, resolveOpacityAtTime } from "@/animation/values";
+import { resolveTransformAtTime } from "@/rendering/animation-values";
 import { videoCache } from "@/services/video-cache/service";
 import type { CanvasRenderer } from "./canvas-renderer";
 import type { AnyBaseNode } from "./nodes/base-node";
@@ -113,7 +112,8 @@ function resolveEffectPassGroups({
 		.filter((effect) => effect.enabled)
 		.map((effect) => {
 			const resolvedParams = resolveEffectParamsAtTime({
-				effect,
+				effectId: effect.id,
+				params: effect.params,
 				animations,
 				localTime,
 			});
@@ -304,7 +304,7 @@ function resolveGraphicNode({
 
 	return {
 		...visualState,
-		resolvedParams: resolveGraphicParamsAtTime({
+		resolvedParams: resolveGraphicElementParamsAtTime({
 			element: node.params,
 			localTime: visualState.localTime,
 		}),
diff --git a/apps/web/src/text/components/text-tab.tsx b/apps/web/src/text/components/text-tab.tsx
index bf14efba..0f0b274a 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/text/components/text-tab.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/text/components/text-tab.tsx
@@ -30,7 +30,10 @@ import { useKeyframedNumberProperty } from "@/components/editor/panels/propertie
 import { useElementPlayhead } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-element-playhead";
 import { KeyframeToggle } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/components/keyframe-toggle";
 import { isPropertyAtDefault } from "@/rendering/components/transform-tab";
-import { resolveColorAtTime, resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation";
+import {
+	resolveColorAtTime,
+	resolveNumberAtTime,
+} from "@/animation/values";
 import { HugeiconsIcon } from "@hugeicons/react";
 import {
 	MinusSignIcon,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/text/measure-element.ts b/apps/web/src/text/measure-element.ts
index 3a49696f..ec14421b 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/text/measure-element.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/text/measure-element.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 import { CORNER_RADIUS_MIN } from "@/text/background";
-import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation";
 import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
 import type { TextBackground, TextElement } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation/values";
 import {
 	getTextVisualRect,
 } from "./layout";
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-properties.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-properties.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..308f6cf0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-properties.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,426 @@
+import type {
+	AnimationBindingKind,
+	AnimationInterpolation,
+	AnimationPropertyPath,
+	AnimationValue,
+	ElementAnimations,
+	NumericSpec,
+} from "@/animation/types";
+import { upsertPathKeyframe } from "@/animation";
+import { parseColorToLinearRgba } from "@/animation/binding-values";
+import type { MediaTime } from "@/wasm";
+import { isAnimationPropertyPath } from "@/animation/path";
+import { MIN_TRANSFORM_SCALE } from "@/animation/transform";
+import { snapToStep } from "@/utils/math";
+import type { TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
+import {
+	CORNER_RADIUS_MAX,
+	CORNER_RADIUS_MIN,
+} from "@/text/background";
+import {
+	canElementHaveAudio,
+	isVisualElement,
+} from "@/timeline/element-utils";
+import { VOLUME_DB_MAX, VOLUME_DB_MIN } from "@/timeline/audio-constants";
+import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
+
+export interface AnimationPropertyDefinition {
+	kind: AnimationBindingKind;
+	defaultInterpolation: AnimationInterpolation;
+	numericRanges?: Partial<Record<string, NumericSpec>>;
+	supportsElement: ({ element }: { element: TimelineElement }) => boolean;
+	getValue: ({ element }: { element: TimelineElement }) => AnimationValue | null;
+	coerceValue: ({ value }: { value: AnimationValue }) => AnimationValue | null;
+	setValue: ({
+		element,
+		value,
+	}: {
+		element: TimelineElement;
+		value: AnimationValue;
+	}) => TimelineElement;
+}
+
+function applyNumericSpec({
+	value,
+	numericRange,
+}: {
+	value: number;
+	numericRange: NumericSpec | undefined;
+}): number {
+	if (!numericRange) {
+		return value;
+	}
+
+	const steppedValue =
+		numericRange.step != null
+			? snapToStep({ value, step: numericRange.step })
+			: value;
+	const minValue = numericRange.min ?? Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY;
+	const maxValue = numericRange.max ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+	return Math.min(maxValue, Math.max(minValue, steppedValue));
+}
+
+function coerceNumberValue({
+	value,
+	numericRange,
+}: {
+	value: AnimationValue;
+	numericRange?: NumericSpec;
+}): number | null {
+	if (typeof value !== "number" || Number.isNaN(value)) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	return applyNumericSpec({ value, numericRange });
+}
+
+function coerceColorValue({
+	value,
+}: {
+	value: AnimationValue;
+}): string | null {
+	return typeof value === "string" && parseColorToLinearRgba({ color: value })
+		? value
+		: null;
+}
+
+function createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+	numericRange,
+	supportsElement,
+	getValue,
+	setValue,
+}: {
+	numericRange?: NumericSpec;
+	supportsElement: AnimationPropertyDefinition["supportsElement"];
+	getValue: AnimationPropertyDefinition["getValue"];
+	setValue: AnimationPropertyDefinition["setValue"];
+}): AnimationPropertyDefinition {
+	return {
+		kind: "number",
+		defaultInterpolation: "linear",
+		numericRanges: numericRange ? { value: numericRange } : undefined,
+		supportsElement,
+		getValue,
+		coerceValue: ({ value }) =>
+			coerceNumberValue({
+				value,
+				numericRange,
+			}),
+		setValue,
+	};
+}
+
+const ANIMATION_PROPERTY_REGISTRY: Record<
+	AnimationPropertyPath,
+	AnimationPropertyDefinition
+> = {
+	"transform.positionX": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.transform.position.x : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? {
+						...element,
+						transform: {
+							...element.transform,
+							position: { ...element.transform.position, x: value as number },
+						},
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"transform.positionY": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.transform.position.y : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? {
+						...element,
+						transform: {
+							...element.transform,
+							position: { ...element.transform.position, y: value as number },
+						},
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"transform.scaleX": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: MIN_TRANSFORM_SCALE, step: 0.01 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.transform.scaleX : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? {
+						...element,
+						transform: { ...element.transform, scaleX: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"transform.scaleY": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: MIN_TRANSFORM_SCALE, step: 0.01 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.transform.scaleY : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? {
+						...element,
+						transform: { ...element.transform, scaleY: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"transform.rotate": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: -360, max: 360, step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.transform.rotate : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? {
+						...element,
+						transform: { ...element.transform, rotate: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	opacity: createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: 0, max: 1, step: 0.01 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => isVisualElement(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element) ? element.opacity : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			isVisualElement(element)
+				? { ...element, opacity: value as number }
+				: element,
+	}),
+	volume: createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: VOLUME_DB_MIN, max: VOLUME_DB_MAX, step: 0.01 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => canElementHaveAudio(element),
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			canElementHaveAudio(element) ? element.volume ?? 0 : null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			canElementHaveAudio(element)
+				? { ...element, volume: value as number }
+				: element,
+	}),
+	color: {
+		kind: "color",
+		defaultInterpolation: "linear",
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) => (element.type === "text" ? element.color : null),
+		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceColorValue({ value }),
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? { ...element, color: value as string }
+				: element,
+	},
+	"background.color": {
+		kind: "color",
+		defaultInterpolation: "linear",
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text" ? element.background.color : null,
+		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceColorValue({ value }),
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, color: value as string },
+					}
+				: element,
+	},
+	"background.paddingX": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: 0, step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? (element.background.paddingX ?? DEFAULTS.text.background.paddingX)
+				: null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, paddingX: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"background.paddingY": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { min: 0, step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? (element.background.paddingY ?? DEFAULTS.text.background.paddingY)
+				: null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, paddingY: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"background.offsetX": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? (element.background.offsetX ?? DEFAULTS.text.background.offsetX)
+				: null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, offsetX: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"background.offsetY": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: { step: 1 },
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? (element.background.offsetY ?? DEFAULTS.text.background.offsetY)
+				: null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, offsetY: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+	"background.cornerRadius": createNumberPropertyDefinition({
+		numericRange: {
+			min: CORNER_RADIUS_MIN,
+			max: CORNER_RADIUS_MAX,
+			step: 1,
+		},
+		supportsElement: ({ element }) => element.type === "text",
+		getValue: ({ element }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? (element.background.cornerRadius ?? CORNER_RADIUS_MIN)
+				: null,
+		setValue: ({ element, value }) =>
+			element.type === "text"
+				? {
+						...element,
+						background: { ...element.background, cornerRadius: value as number },
+					}
+				: element,
+	}),
+};
+
+export function getAnimationPropertyDefinition({
+	propertyPath,
+}: {
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+}): AnimationPropertyDefinition {
+	return ANIMATION_PROPERTY_REGISTRY[propertyPath];
+}
+
+export function supportsAnimationProperty({
+	element,
+	propertyPath,
+}: {
+	element: TimelineElement;
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+}): boolean {
+	const propertyDefinition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	return propertyDefinition.supportsElement({ element });
+}
+
+export function getElementBaseValueForProperty({
+	element,
+	propertyPath,
+}: {
+	element: TimelineElement;
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+}): AnimationValue | null {
+	const definition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	if (!definition.supportsElement({ element })) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	return definition.getValue({ element });
+}
+
+export function withElementBaseValueForProperty({
+	element,
+	propertyPath,
+	value,
+}: {
+	element: TimelineElement;
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+	value: AnimationValue;
+}): TimelineElement {
+	const definition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	const coercedValue = definition.coerceValue({ value });
+	if (coercedValue === null || !definition.supportsElement({ element })) {
+		return element;
+	}
+
+	return definition.setValue({ element, value: coercedValue });
+}
+
+export function getDefaultInterpolationForProperty({
+	propertyPath,
+}: {
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+}): AnimationInterpolation {
+	const propertyDefinition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	return propertyDefinition.defaultInterpolation;
+}
+
+export function coerceAnimationValueForProperty({
+	propertyPath,
+	value,
+}: {
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+	value: AnimationValue;
+}): AnimationValue | null {
+	const propertyDefinition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	return propertyDefinition.coerceValue({ value });
+}
+
+export function upsertElementKeyframe({
+	animations,
+	propertyPath,
+	time,
+	value,
+	interpolation,
+	keyframeId,
+}: {
+	animations: ElementAnimations | undefined;
+	propertyPath: AnimationPropertyPath;
+	time: MediaTime;
+	value: AnimationValue;
+	interpolation?: AnimationInterpolation;
+	keyframeId?: string;
+}): ElementAnimations | undefined {
+	const coercedValue = coerceAnimationValueForProperty({
+		propertyPath,
+		value,
+	});
+	if (coercedValue === null) {
+		return animations;
+	}
+
+	const propertyDefinition = getAnimationPropertyDefinition({ propertyPath });
+	return upsertPathKeyframe({
+		animations,
+		propertyPath,
+		time,
+		value: coercedValue,
+		interpolation,
+		keyframeId,
+		kind: propertyDefinition.kind,
+		defaultInterpolation: propertyDefinition.defaultInterpolation,
+		coerceValue: ({ value: nextValue }) =>
+			coerceAnimationValueForProperty({
+				propertyPath,
+				value: nextValue,
+			}),
+	});
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/timeline-snap-points.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-snap-points.ts
index e64de11f..e64de11f 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/timeline-snap-points.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-snap-points.ts
diff --git a/apps/web/src/animation/target-resolver.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-targets.ts
index 32e7917c..f9d53fcc 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/animation/target-resolver.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/animation-targets.ts
@@ -3,30 +3,32 @@ import type {
 	AnimationInterpolation,
 	AnimationPath,
 	AnimationValue,
+	NumericSpec,
 } from "@/animation/types";
 import {
+	coerceAnimationParamValue,
+	getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation,
+	getAnimationParamNumericRange,
+	getAnimationParamValueKind,
+} from "@/animation/animated-params";
+import {
 	parseEffectParamPath,
-	isEffectParamPath,
 } from "@/animation/effect-param-channel";
 import {
-	isGraphicParamPath,
 	parseGraphicParamPath,
 } from "@/animation/graphic-param-channel";
-import type { ParamDefinition } from "@/params";
 import { effectsRegistry, registerDefaultEffects } from "@/effects";
 import { getGraphicDefinition } from "@/graphics";
+import type { ParamDefinition } from "@/params";
 import type { TimelineElement } from "@/timeline";
 import { isVisualElement } from "@/timeline/element-utils";
-import { snapToStep } from "@/utils/math";
+import { isAnimationPropertyPath } from "@/animation/path";
 import {
 	coerceAnimationValueForProperty,
 	getAnimationPropertyDefinition,
 	getElementBaseValueForProperty,
-	isAnimationPropertyPath,
-	type NumericSpec,
 	withElementBaseValueForProperty,
-} from "./property-registry";
-import { parseColorToLinearRgba } from "./binding-values";
+} from "./animation-properties";
 
 export interface AnimationPathDescriptor {
 	kind: AnimationBindingKind;
@@ -37,79 +39,16 @@ export interface AnimationPathDescriptor {
 	setBaseValue: ({ value }: { value: AnimationValue }) => TimelineElement;
 }
 
-export function getParamValueKind({
-	param,
-}: {
-	param: ParamDefinition;
-}): AnimationBindingKind {
-	if (param.type === "number") {
-		return "number";
-	}
-
-	if (param.type === "color") {
-		return "color";
-	}
-
-	return "discrete";
-}
-
-export function getParamDefaultInterpolation({
-	param,
-}: {
-	param: ParamDefinition;
-}): AnimationInterpolation {
-	return param.type === "number" || param.type === "color" ? "linear" : "hold";
-}
-
-function getParamNumericRange({
+// Number/discrete bindings expose a single component named "value"
+// (see binding-values.ts). Multi-component kinds (vector2, color) don't carry
+// numeric ranges yet — revisit when one does.
+function paramNumericRanges({
 	param,
 }: {
 	param: ParamDefinition;
 }): Partial<Record<string, NumericSpec>> | undefined {
-	if (param.type !== "number") {
-		return undefined;
-	}
-
-	return {
-		value: {
-			min: param.min,
-			max: param.max,
-			step: param.step,
-		},
-	};
-}
-
-export function coerceAnimationValueForParam({
-	param,
-	value,
-}: {
-	param: ParamDefinition;
-	value: AnimationValue;
-}): number | string | boolean | null {
-	if (param.type === "number") {
-		if (typeof value !== "number" || Number.isNaN(value)) {
-			return null;
-		}
-
-		const steppedValue = snapToStep({ value, step: param.step });
-		const minValue = param.min;
-		const maxValue = param.max ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
-		return Math.min(maxValue, Math.max(minValue, steppedValue));
-	}
-
-	if (param.type === "color") {
-		return typeof value === "string" ? value : null;
-	}
-
-	if (param.type === "boolean") {
-		return typeof value === "boolean" ? value : null;
-	}
-
-	if (typeof value !== "string") {
-		return null;
-	}
-
-	return param.options.some((option) => option.value === value) ? value : null;
+	const range = getAnimationParamNumericRange({ param });
+	return range ? { value: range } : undefined;
 }
 
 function buildGraphicParamDescriptor({
@@ -132,13 +71,13 @@ function buildGraphicParamDescriptor({
 	}
 
 	return {
-		kind: getParamValueKind({ param }),
-		defaultInterpolation: getParamDefaultInterpolation({ param }),
-		numericRanges: getParamNumericRange({ param }),
-		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceAnimationValueForParam({ param, value }),
+		kind: getAnimationParamValueKind({ param }),
+		defaultInterpolation: getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({ param }),
+		numericRanges: paramNumericRanges({ param }),
+		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value }),
 		getBaseValue: () => element.params[param.key] ?? param.default,
 		setBaseValue: ({ value }) => {
-			const coercedValue = coerceAnimationValueForParam({ param, value });
+			const coercedValue = coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value });
 			if (coercedValue === null) {
 				return element;
 			}
@@ -180,13 +119,13 @@ function buildEffectParamDescriptor({
 	}
 
 	return {
-		kind: getParamValueKind({ param }),
-		defaultInterpolation: getParamDefaultInterpolation({ param }),
-		numericRanges: getParamNumericRange({ param }),
-		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceAnimationValueForParam({ param, value }),
+		kind: getAnimationParamValueKind({ param }),
+		defaultInterpolation: getAnimationParamDefaultInterpolation({ param }),
+		numericRanges: paramNumericRanges({ param }),
+		coerceValue: ({ value }) => coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value }),
 		getBaseValue: () => effect.params[param.key] ?? param.default,
 		setBaseValue: ({ value }) => {
-			const coercedValue = coerceAnimationValueForParam({ param, value });
+			const coercedValue = coerceAnimationParamValue({ param, value });
 			if (coercedValue === null) {
 				return element;
 			}
@@ -210,16 +149,6 @@ function buildEffectParamDescriptor({
 	};
 }
 
-export function isAnimationPath(
-	propertyPath: string,
-): propertyPath is AnimationPath {
-	return (
-		isAnimationPropertyPath(propertyPath) ||
-		isGraphicParamPath(propertyPath) ||
-		isEffectParamPath(propertyPath)
-	);
-}
-
 export function resolveAnimationTarget({
 	element,
 	path,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/audio-state.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/audio-state.ts
index 4ef559ea..44df5aaf 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/audio-state.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/audio-state.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import { hasKeyframesForPath } from "@/animation/keyframe-query";
-import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation/resolve";
+import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation/values";
 import { VOLUME_DB_MAX, VOLUME_DB_MIN } from "./audio-constants";
 import type { TimelineElement } from "./types";
 const DEFAULT_STEP_SECONDS = 1 / 60;
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/bookmarks/hooks/use-bookmark-drag.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/bookmarks/hooks/use-bookmark-drag.ts
index 343fda80..4c03ef8c 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/bookmarks/hooks/use-bookmark-drag.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/bookmarks/hooks/use-bookmark-drag.ts
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ import {
 import { getBookmarkSnapPoints } from "../snap-source";
 import { getElementEdgeSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/element-snap-source";
 import { getPlayheadSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/playhead-snap-source";
-import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/animation/timeline-snap-points";
+import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/timeline/animation-snap-points";
 import type { Bookmark } from "@/timeline";
 import { roundFrameTime, type MediaTime, ZERO_MEDIA_TIME } from "@/wasm";
 
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/components/audio-tab.tsx b/apps/web/src/timeline/components/audio-tab.tsx
index 1dbb3d1a..1e47dcc8 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/components/audio-tab.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/components/audio-tab.tsx
@@ -1,151 +1,151 @@
-import { Button } from "@/components/ui/button";

-import { NumberField } from "@/components/ui/number-field";

-import { VOLUME_DB_MAX, VOLUME_DB_MIN } from "@/timeline/audio-constants";

-import { isSourceAudioSeparated } from "@/timeline/audio-separation";

-import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";

-import {

-	clamp,

-	formatNumberForDisplay,

-	getFractionDigitsForStep,

-	isNearlyEqual,

-	snapToStep,

-} from "@/utils/math";

-import type { AudioElement, VideoElement } from "@/timeline";

-import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation";

-import { useEditor } from "@/editor/use-editor";

-import { useElementPlayhead } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-element-playhead";

-import { useKeyframedNumberProperty } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-number-property";

-import { KeyframeToggle } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/components/keyframe-toggle";

-import { HugeiconsIcon } from "@hugeicons/react";

-import { VolumeHighIcon } from "@hugeicons/core-free-icons";

-import {

-	Section,

-	SectionContent,

-	SectionField,

-	SectionFields,

-	SectionHeader,

-	SectionTitle,

-} from "@/components/section";

-

-const VOLUME_STEP = 0.1;

-const VOLUME_FRACTION_DIGITS = getFractionDigitsForStep({ step: VOLUME_STEP });

-

-export function AudioTab({

-	element,

-	trackId,

-}: {

-	element: AudioElement | VideoElement;

-	trackId: string;

-}) {

-	const editor = useEditor();

-	const { localTime, isPlayheadWithinElementRange } = useElementPlayhead({

-		startTime: element.startTime,

-		duration: element.duration,

-	});

-	const resolvedVolume = resolveNumberAtTime({

-		baseValue: element.volume ?? DEFAULTS.element.volume,

-		animations: element.animations,

-		propertyPath: "volume",

-		localTime,

-	});

-	const volume = useKeyframedNumberProperty({

-		trackId,

-		elementId: element.id,

-		animations: element.animations,

-		propertyPath: "volume",

-		localTime,

-		isPlayheadWithinElementRange,

-		displayValue: formatNumberForDisplay({

-			value: resolvedVolume,

-			fractionDigits: VOLUME_FRACTION_DIGITS,

-		}),

-		parse: (input) => {

-			const parsed = parseFloat(input);

-			if (Number.isNaN(parsed)) {

-				return null;

-			}

-

-			return clamp({

-				value: snapToStep({ value: parsed, step: VOLUME_STEP }),

-				min: VOLUME_DB_MIN,

-				max: VOLUME_DB_MAX,

-			});

-		},

-		valueAtPlayhead: resolvedVolume,

-		step: VOLUME_STEP,

-		buildBaseUpdates: ({ value }) => ({

-			volume: value,

-		}),

-	});

-	const isDefault =

-		volume.hasAnimatedKeyframes && isPlayheadWithinElementRange

-			? isNearlyEqual({

-					leftValue: resolvedVolume,

-					rightValue: DEFAULTS.element.volume,

-				})

-			: (element.volume ?? DEFAULTS.element.volume) === DEFAULTS.element.volume;

-	const isSeparated =

-		element.type === "video" && isSourceAudioSeparated({ element });

-

-	return (

-		<>

-			{isSeparated && (

-				<div className="mx-4 mt-4 rounded-md border bg-muted/30 p-3">

-					<p className="text-sm">Audio has been separated.</p>

-					<Button

-						className="mt-3"

-						size="sm"

-						variant="secondary"

-						onClick={() =>

-							editor.timeline.toggleSourceAudioSeparation({

-								trackId,

-								elementId: element.id,

-							})

-						}

-					>

-						Recover audio

-					</Button>

-				</div>

-			)}

-			<Section collapsible sectionKey={`${element.id}:audio`}>

-				<SectionHeader>

-					<SectionTitle>Audio</SectionTitle>

-				</SectionHeader>

-				<SectionContent>

-					<SectionFields>

-						<SectionField

-							label="Volume"

-							beforeLabel={

-								<KeyframeToggle

-									isActive={volume.isKeyframedAtTime}

-									isDisabled={!isPlayheadWithinElementRange}

-									title="Toggle volume keyframe"

-									onToggle={volume.toggleKeyframe}

-								/>

-							}

-						>

-							<NumberField

-								icon={<HugeiconsIcon icon={VolumeHighIcon} />}

-								value={volume.displayValue}

-								onFocus={volume.onFocus}

-								onChange={volume.onChange}

-								onBlur={volume.onBlur}

-								dragSensitivity="slow"

-								scrubClamp={{ min: VOLUME_DB_MIN, max: VOLUME_DB_MAX }}

-								onScrub={volume.scrubTo}

-								onScrubEnd={volume.commitScrub}

-								onReset={() =>

-									volume.commitValue({

-										value: DEFAULTS.element.volume,

-									})

-								}

-								isDefault={isDefault}

-								suffix="dB"

-							/>

-						</SectionField>

-					</SectionFields>

-				</SectionContent>

-			</Section>

-		</>

-	);

-}

+import { Button } from "@/components/ui/button";
+import { NumberField } from "@/components/ui/number-field";
+import { VOLUME_DB_MAX, VOLUME_DB_MIN } from "@/timeline/audio-constants";
+import { isSourceAudioSeparated } from "@/timeline/audio-separation";
+import { DEFAULTS } from "@/timeline/defaults";
+import {
+	clamp,
+	formatNumberForDisplay,
+	getFractionDigitsForStep,
+	isNearlyEqual,
+	snapToStep,
+} from "@/utils/math";
+import type { AudioElement, VideoElement } from "@/timeline";
+import { resolveNumberAtTime } from "@/animation/values";
+import { useEditor } from "@/editor/use-editor";
+import { useElementPlayhead } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-element-playhead";
+import { useKeyframedNumberProperty } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/hooks/use-keyframed-number-property";
+import { KeyframeToggle } from "@/components/editor/panels/properties/components/keyframe-toggle";
+import { HugeiconsIcon } from "@hugeicons/react";
+import { VolumeHighIcon } from "@hugeicons/core-free-icons";
+import {
+	Section,
+	SectionContent,
+	SectionField,
+	SectionFields,
+	SectionHeader,
+	SectionTitle,
+} from "@/components/section";
+
+const VOLUME_STEP = 0.1;
+const VOLUME_FRACTION_DIGITS = getFractionDigitsForStep({ step: VOLUME_STEP });
+
+export function AudioTab({
+	element,
+	trackId,
+}: {
+	element: AudioElement | VideoElement;
+	trackId: string;
+}) {
+	const editor = useEditor();
+	const { localTime, isPlayheadWithinElementRange } = useElementPlayhead({
+		startTime: element.startTime,
+		duration: element.duration,
+	});
+	const resolvedVolume = resolveNumberAtTime({
+		baseValue: element.volume ?? DEFAULTS.element.volume,
+		animations: element.animations,
+		propertyPath: "volume",
+		localTime,
+	});
+	const volume = useKeyframedNumberProperty({
+		trackId,
+		elementId: element.id,
+		animations: element.animations,
+		propertyPath: "volume",
+		localTime,
+		isPlayheadWithinElementRange,
+		displayValue: formatNumberForDisplay({
+			value: resolvedVolume,
+			fractionDigits: VOLUME_FRACTION_DIGITS,
+		}),
+		parse: (input) => {
+			const parsed = parseFloat(input);
+			if (Number.isNaN(parsed)) {
+				return null;
+			}
+
+			return clamp({
+				value: snapToStep({ value: parsed, step: VOLUME_STEP }),
+				min: VOLUME_DB_MIN,
+				max: VOLUME_DB_MAX,
+			});
+		},
+		valueAtPlayhead: resolvedVolume,
+		step: VOLUME_STEP,
+		buildBaseUpdates: ({ value }) => ({
+			volume: value,
+		}),
+	});
+	const isDefault =
+		volume.hasAnimatedKeyframes && isPlayheadWithinElementRange
+			? isNearlyEqual({
+					leftValue: resolvedVolume,
+					rightValue: DEFAULTS.element.volume,
+				})
+			: (element.volume ?? DEFAULTS.element.volume) === DEFAULTS.element.volume;
+	const isSeparated =
+		element.type === "video" && isSourceAudioSeparated({ element });
+
+	return (
+		<>
+			{isSeparated && (
+				<div className="mx-4 mt-4 rounded-md border bg-muted/30 p-3">
+					<p className="text-sm">Audio has been separated.</p>
+					<Button
+						className="mt-3"
+						size="sm"
+						variant="secondary"
+						onClick={() =>
+							editor.timeline.toggleSourceAudioSeparation({
+								trackId,
+								elementId: element.id,
+							})
+						}
+					>
+						Recover audio
+					</Button>
+				</div>
+			)}
+			<Section collapsible sectionKey={`${element.id}:audio`}>
+				<SectionHeader>
+					<SectionTitle>Audio</SectionTitle>
+				</SectionHeader>
+				<SectionContent>
+					<SectionFields>
+						<SectionField
+							label="Volume"
+							beforeLabel={
+								<KeyframeToggle
+									isActive={volume.isKeyframedAtTime}
+									isDisabled={!isPlayheadWithinElementRange}
+									title="Toggle volume keyframe"
+									onToggle={volume.toggleKeyframe}
+								/>
+							}
+						>
+							<NumberField
+								icon={<HugeiconsIcon icon={VolumeHighIcon} />}
+								value={volume.displayValue}
+								onFocus={volume.onFocus}
+								onChange={volume.onChange}
+								onBlur={volume.onBlur}
+								dragSensitivity="slow"
+								scrubClamp={{ min: VOLUME_DB_MIN, max: VOLUME_DB_MAX }}
+								onScrub={volume.scrubTo}
+								onScrubEnd={volume.commitScrub}
+								onReset={() =>
+									volume.commitValue({
+										value: DEFAULTS.element.volume,
+									})
+								}
+								isDefault={isDefault}
+								suffix="dB"
+							/>
+						</SectionField>
+					</SectionFields>
+				</SectionContent>
+			</Section>
+		</>
+	);
+}
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/components/index.tsx b/apps/web/src/timeline/components/index.tsx
index 68f3f37f..490ad1cc 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/components/index.tsx
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/components/index.tsx
@@ -778,8 +778,8 @@ function TimelineTrackRows({
 	const draggingElementIds = useMemo(
 		() =>
 			dragView.kind === "dragging"
-				? dragView.memberTimeOffsets
-				: (null as ReadonlyMap<string, MediaTime> | null),
+			? dragView.memberTimeOffsets
+			: (null as ReadonlyMap<string, MediaTime> | null),
 		[dragView],
 	);
 	const sortedTracks = useMemo(() => {
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/keyframe-drag-controller.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/keyframe-drag-controller.ts
index 29dfc5dd..e3a9cd96 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/keyframe-drag-controller.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/keyframe-drag-controller.ts
@@ -282,14 +282,14 @@ export class KeyframeDragController {
 					elementId: ref.elementId,
 					propertyPath: ref.propertyPath,
 					keyframeId: ref.keyframeId,
-					nextTime: clampMediaTime({
-						time: addMediaTime({
-							a: keyframe.time,
-							b: mediaTime({ ticks: deltaTicks }),
-						}),
-						min: ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
-						max: element.duration,
+				nextTime: clampMediaTime({
+					time: addMediaTime({
+						a: keyframe.time,
+						b: mediaTime({ ticks: deltaTicks }),
 					}),
+					min: ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
+					max: element.duration,
+				}),
 				}),
 			];
 		});
@@ -329,8 +329,7 @@ export class KeyframeDragController {
 			((clientX - this.session.startMouseX) / pixelsPerSecond) *
 				TICKS_PER_SECOND,
 		);
-		this.session.deltaTicks =
-			roundFrameTicks({ ticks: rawDeltaTicks, fps });
+		this.session.deltaTicks = roundFrameTicks({ ticks: rawDeltaTicks, fps });
 		this.notify();
 	}
 
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/playhead-controller.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/playhead-controller.ts
index b96b868b..e914ff21 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/playhead-controller.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/playhead-controller.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ import {
 } from "@/timeline/snapping";
 import { getBookmarkSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/bookmarks/index";
 import { getElementEdgeSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/element-snap-source";
-import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/animation/timeline-snap-points";
+import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/timeline/animation-snap-points";
 import {
 	getCenteredLineLeft,
 	timelineTimeToPixels,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/resize-controller.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/resize-controller.ts
index 8b0119a0..e8cbaa80 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/resize-controller.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/controllers/resize-controller.ts
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ import {
 } from "@/timeline/snapping";
 import { getElementEdgeSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/element-snap-source";
 import { getPlayheadSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/playhead-snap-source";
-import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/animation/timeline-snap-points";
+import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/timeline/animation-snap-points";
 import {
 	isRetimableElement,
 	type SceneTracks,
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/group-move/snap.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/group-move/snap.ts
index 8b6d196b..7aaf4423 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/group-move/snap.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/group-move/snap.ts
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import {
 } from "@/timeline/snapping";
 import { getElementEdgeSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/element-snap-source";
 import { getPlayheadSnapPoints } from "@/timeline/playhead-snap-source";
-import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/animation/timeline-snap-points";
+import { getAnimationKeyframeSnapPointsForTimeline } from "@/timeline/animation-snap-points";
 import type { MoveGroup } from "./types";
 import { addMediaTime, type MediaTime, subMediaTime } from "@/wasm";
 
diff --git a/apps/web/src/timeline/group-resize/compute-resize.ts b/apps/web/src/timeline/group-resize/compute-resize.ts
index 465531bf..ed335997 100644
--- a/apps/web/src/timeline/group-resize/compute-resize.ts
+++ b/apps/web/src/timeline/group-resize/compute-resize.ts
@@ -131,15 +131,15 @@ function buildResizeUpdate({
 		return {
 			trackId: member.trackId,
 			elementId: member.elementId,
-			patch: {
-				trimStart: maxMediaTime({
-					a: ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
-					b: addMediaTime({ a: member.trimStart, b: sourceDelta }),
-				}),
-				trimEnd: member.trimEnd,
-				startTime: addMediaTime({ a: member.startTime, b: deltaTime }),
-				duration: subMediaTime({ a: member.duration, b: deltaTime }),
-			},
+		patch: {
+			trimStart: maxMediaTime({
+				a: ZERO_MEDIA_TIME,
+				b: addMediaTime({ a: member.trimStart, b: sourceDelta }),
+			}),
+			trimEnd: member.trimEnd,
+			startTime: addMediaTime({ a: member.startTime, b: deltaTime }),
+			duration: subMediaTime({ a: member.duration, b: deltaTime }),
+		},
 		};
 	}
 
diff --git a/bun.lock b/bun.lock
index e342cd5f..e2198a3e 100644
--- a/bun.lock
+++ b/bun.lock
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
         "@types/react-dom": "^19.2.3",
         "better-auth": "^1.4.15",
         "next": "^16.1.3",
+        "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.10",
       },
       "devDependencies": {
         "turbo": "^2.8.20",
@@ -54,7 +55,7 @@
         "nanoid": "^5.1.5",
         "next": "16.1.3",
         "next-themes": "^0.4.4",
-        "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.9",
+        "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.10",
         "pg": "^8.16.2",
         "postgres": "^3.4.5",
         "radix-ui": "^1.4.3",
@@ -1359,7 +1360,7 @@
 
     "onnxruntime-web": ["onnxruntime-web@1.22.0-dev.20250409-89f8206ba4", "", { "dependencies": { "flatbuffers": "^25.1.24", "guid-typescript": "^1.0.9", "long": "^5.2.3", "onnxruntime-common": "1.22.0-dev.20250409-89f8206ba4", "platform": "^1.3.6", "protobufjs": "^7.2.4" } }, "sha512-0uS76OPgH0hWCPrFKlL8kYVV7ckM7t/36HfbgoFw6Nd0CZVVbQC4PkrR8mBX8LtNUFZO25IQBqV2Hx2ho3FlbQ=="],
 
-    "opencut-wasm": ["opencut-wasm@0.2.9", "", {}, "sha512-yZilhRRgNA02XY9Bq2yt6FidbnDQS1OYsvtNczxF6jL+nvl3vRboG0owwpQY0SPIbeJoJjJBuOVy0i1Pp6JS/w=="],
+    "opencut-wasm": ["opencut-wasm@0.2.10", "", {}, "sha512-dy+Z9SWwpjLjgmTAMQoMMIUmdbUk9OXoWXLoacl9xT9TCrekIGSeMM0F7bJ1H3VJwwUxbGasaVibvn5AfmeZrg=="],
 
     "p-limit": ["p-limit@6.2.0", "", { "dependencies": { "yocto-queue": "^1.1.1" } }, "sha512-kuUqqHNUqoIWp/c467RI4X6mmyuojY5jGutNU0wVTmEOOfcuwLqyMVoAi9MKi2Ak+5i9+nhmrK4ufZE8069kHA=="],
 
diff --git a/package.json b/package.json
index 22504650..941dd0ad 100644
--- a/package.json
+++ b/package.json
@@ -27,7 +27,8 @@
     "@types/react": "^19.2.10",
     "@types/react-dom": "^19.2.3",
     "better-auth": "^1.4.15",
-    "next": "^16.1.3"
+    "next": "^16.1.3",
+    "opencut-wasm": "^0.2.10"
   },
   "devDependencies": {
     "turbo": "^2.8.20",
diff --git a/random_gibberish.txt b/random_gibberish.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6a8c5579
--- /dev/null
+++ b/random_gibberish.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+bananas are not real
+the moon was invented in 1987 by a consortium of cheese manufacturers
+every time you blink, a squirrel forgets how to count
+this file contains exactly 0 useful information
+potatoes dream in hexadecimal
+the ocean is just a very large puddle that got too confident
+chairs were banned in 1423 but nobody noticed
+purple smells like thursday
+EOF
diff --git a/rust/crates/compositor/src/compositor.rs b/rust/crates/compositor/src/compositor.rs
index 84bcceae..99f0e7e9 100644
--- a/rust/crates/compositor/src/compositor.rs
+++ b/rust/crates/compositor/src/compositor.rs
@@ -348,7 +348,6 @@ impl Compositor {
     ) -> Result<(), CompositorError> {
         let frame = options.frame;
         self.texture_pool.recycle_frame();
-        context.configure_surface(options.surface, frame.width, frame.height)?;
         let surface_texture = context.acquire_surface_texture(options.surface)?;
         let surface_view = surface_texture
             .texture
diff --git a/rust/crates/gpu/src/context.rs b/rust/crates/gpu/src/context.rs
index e38eff8c..da835280 100644
--- a/rust/crates/gpu/src/context.rs
+++ b/rust/crates/gpu/src/context.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
 use wgpu::util::DeviceExt;
 
 #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
+use std::cell::RefCell;
+
+#[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
 use wasm_bindgen::JsCast;
 
 use crate::{FULLSCREEN_SHADER_SOURCE, GpuError};
@@ -17,6 +20,12 @@ impl wgpu::rwh::HasDisplayHandle for WebDisplay {
     }
 }
 
+#[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
+struct CachedCanvasSurface {
+    surface: wgpu::Surface<'static>,
+    size: (u32, u32),
+}
+
 const BLIT_SHADER_SOURCE: &str = include_str!("shaders/blit.wgsl");
 
 const FULLSCREEN_QUAD_POSITIONS: [[f32; 2]; 6] = [
@@ -44,6 +53,8 @@ pub struct GpuContext {
     /// fallback path. Used by render_texture_via_gl_canvas to output frames on WebGL.
     #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
     gl_canvas: Option<web_sys::HtmlCanvasElement>,
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
+    gl_surface: RefCell<Option<CachedCanvasSurface>>,
 }
 
 impl GpuContext {
@@ -170,6 +181,8 @@ impl GpuContext {
             supports_external_texture_copies,
             #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
             gl_canvas,
+            #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
+            gl_surface: RefCell::new(None),
         })
     }
 
@@ -184,17 +197,15 @@ impl GpuContext {
         ),
         GpuError,
     > {
-        // Temporary fix: force the wasm renderer onto the WebGL backend even when
-        // WebGPU is available while a WebGPU bug is being investigated.
-        // let instance = wgpu::util::new_instance_with_webgpu_detection(
-        //     wgpu::InstanceDescriptor::new_without_display_handle(),
-        // )
-        // .await;
+        let instance = wgpu::util::new_instance_with_webgpu_detection(
+            wgpu::InstanceDescriptor::new_without_display_handle(),
+        )
+        .await;
 
-        // match Self::try_request_device(&instance, None).await {
-        //     Ok((adapter, device, queue)) => return Ok((instance, adapter, device, queue, None)),
-        //     Err(_) => {}
-        // }
+        match Self::try_request_device(&instance, None).await {
+            Ok((adapter, device, queue)) => return Ok((instance, adapter, device, queue, None)),
+            Err(_) => {}
+        }
         let (gl_instance, adapter, device, queue, canvas) = Self::try_gl_fallback().await?;
         Ok((gl_instance, adapter, device, queue, Some(canvas)))
     }
@@ -353,6 +364,14 @@ impl GpuContext {
         self.supports_external_texture_copies
     }
 
+    /// The HTML canvas that owns the backing WebGL context, if running on the
+    /// WebGL fallback. Callers on that path can mount this canvas directly
+    /// instead of copying pixels out of it every frame.
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
+    pub fn gl_canvas(&self) -> Option<&web_sys::HtmlCanvasElement> {
+        self.gl_canvas.as_ref()
+    }
+
     pub fn render_texture_to_surface(
         &self,
         texture: &wgpu::Texture,
@@ -361,6 +380,14 @@ impl GpuContext {
         height: u32,
     ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
         self.configure_surface(surface, width, height)?;
+        self.present_texture_to_surface(texture, surface)
+    }
+
+    pub fn present_texture_to_surface(
+        &self,
+        texture: &wgpu::Texture,
+        surface: &wgpu::Surface<'_>,
+    ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
         let surface_texture = self.acquire_surface_texture(surface)?;
         let target_view = surface_texture
             .texture
@@ -382,16 +409,38 @@ impl GpuContext {
         width: u32,
         height: u32,
     ) -> Result<(), GpuError> {
-        let Some(config) = surface.get_default_config(&self.adapter, width, height) else {
-            return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedSurfaceFormat);
-        };
-        if config.format != self.texture_format {
-            return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedSurfaceFormat);
-        }
+        let config = self.build_surface_configuration(surface, width, height)?;
         surface.configure(&self.device, &config);
         Ok(())
     }
 
+    fn build_surface_configuration(
+        &self,
+        surface: &wgpu::Surface<'_>,
+        width: u32,
+        height: u32,
+    ) -> Result<wgpu::SurfaceConfiguration, GpuError> {
+        let caps = surface.get_capabilities(&self.adapter);
+        if !caps.formats.contains(&self.texture_format) {
+            return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedSurfaceFormat);
+        }
+
+        Ok(wgpu::SurfaceConfiguration {
+            usage: wgpu::TextureUsages::RENDER_ATTACHMENT,
+            format: self.texture_format,
+            width,
+            height,
+            present_mode: wgpu::PresentMode::Fifo,
+            alpha_mode: caps
+                .alpha_modes
+                .first()
+                .copied()
+                .unwrap_or(wgpu::CompositeAlphaMode::Auto),
+            view_formats: vec![],
+            desired_maximum_frame_latency: 2,
+        })
+    }
+
     pub fn acquire_surface_texture(
         &self,
         surface: &wgpu::Surface<'_>,
@@ -571,7 +620,7 @@ impl GpuContext {
     }
 
     #[cfg(all(feature = "wasm", target_arch = "wasm32"))]
-    fn render_texture_to_gl_canvas_surface(
+    pub fn render_texture_to_gl_canvas_surface(
         &self,
         texture: &wgpu::Texture,
         width: u32,
@@ -585,57 +634,29 @@ impl GpuContext {
         gl_canvas.set_width(width);
         gl_canvas.set_height(height);
 
-        let surface = self
-            .instance
-            .create_surface(wgpu::SurfaceTarget::Canvas(gl_canvas.clone()))?;
-
-        let caps = surface.get_capabilities(&self.adapter);
-        let surface_format = if caps.formats.contains(&self.texture_format) {
-            self.texture_format
-        } else if !caps.formats.is_empty() {
-            caps.formats[0]
-        } else {
-            return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedSurfaceFormat);
+        let mut cached_surface = self.gl_surface.borrow_mut();
+        let cached_surface = match cached_surface.as_mut() {
+            Some(cached_surface) => cached_surface,
+            None => {
+                let surface = self
+                    .instance
+                    .create_surface(wgpu::SurfaceTarget::Canvas(gl_canvas.clone()))?;
+                cached_surface.replace(CachedCanvasSurface {
+                    surface,
+                    size: (0, 0),
+                });
+                cached_surface
+                    .as_mut()
+                    .expect("gl_surface cache should exist after initialization")
+            }
         };
 
-        if surface_format != self.texture_format {
-            return Err(GpuError::UnsupportedSurfaceFormat);
+        if cached_surface.size != (width, height) {
+            self.configure_surface(&cached_surface.surface, width, height)?;
+            cached_surface.size = (width, height);
         }
 
-        let config = wgpu::SurfaceConfiguration {
-            usage: wgpu::TextureUsages::RENDER_ATTACHMENT,
-            format: surface_format,
-            width,
-            height,
-            present_mode: wgpu::PresentMode::Fifo,
-            alpha_mode: caps
-                .alpha_modes
-                .first()
-                .copied()
-                .unwrap_or(wgpu::CompositeAlphaMode::Auto),
-            view_formats: vec![],
-            desired_maximum_frame_latency: 2,
-        };
-        surface.configure(&self.device, &config);
-
-        let surface_texture = self.acquire_surface_texture(&surface)?;
-        let surface_view = surface_texture
-            .texture
-            .create_view(&wgpu::TextureViewDescriptor::default());
-
-        let mut encoder = self
-            .device
-            .create_command_encoder(&wgpu::CommandEncoderDescriptor {
-                label: Some("gpu-gl-canvas-blit-encoder"),
-            });
-        self.encode_texture_blit_to_view(
-            &mut encoder,
-            texture,
-            &surface_view,
-            "gpu-gl-canvas-blit",
-        );
-        self.queue.submit([encoder.finish()]);
-        surface_texture.present();
+        self.present_texture_to_surface(texture, &cached_surface.surface)?;
 
         Ok(gl_canvas)
     }
diff --git a/rust/wasm/Cargo.toml b/rust/wasm/Cargo.toml
index f12a8cbc..0f2bfc56 100644
--- a/rust/wasm/Cargo.toml
+++ b/rust/wasm/Cargo.toml
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 [package]
 name = "opencut-wasm"
-version = "0.2.9"
+version = "0.2.10"
 edition = "2024"
 description = "Shared video editor logic compiled to WebAssembly"
 repository = "https://github.com/opencut/opencut"
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ serde-wasm-bindgen = "0.6.5"
 time = { version = "0.1.0", path = "../crates/time", features = ["wasm"] }
 wasm-bindgen = "0.2.116"
 wasm-bindgen-futures = "0.4.66"
-web-sys = { version = "0.3.93", features = ["OffscreenCanvas", "HtmlCanvasElement", "CanvasRenderingContext2d", "Document", "Window"] }
+web-sys = { version = "0.3.93", features = ["OffscreenCanvas", "HtmlCanvasElement", "CanvasRenderingContext2d", "Document", "Window", "Performance"] }
 
 [features]
 default = ["wasm"]
diff --git a/rust/wasm/src/compositor.rs b/rust/wasm/src/compositor.rs
index 126c7468..7652b3f3 100644
--- a/rust/wasm/src/compositor.rs
+++ b/rust/wasm/src/compositor.rs
@@ -11,10 +11,13 @@ use crate::gpu::{
     import_canvas_texture, read_offscreen_canvas_property, read_serde_property, read_u32_property,
     with_gpu_runtime,
 };
+use crate::perf;
 
 struct CompositorRuntime {
     canvas: web_sys::HtmlCanvasElement,
     compositor: Compositor,
+    surface: wgpu::Surface<'static>,
+    surface_size: (u32, u32),
 }
 
 thread_local! {
@@ -24,20 +27,42 @@ thread_local! {
 #[wasm_bindgen(js_name = initCompositor)]
 pub fn init_compositor(width: u32, height: u32) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
     with_gpu_runtime(|gpu_runtime| {
-        let document = web_sys::window()
-            .and_then(|window| window.document())
-            .ok_or_else(|| JsValue::from_str("Document is not available"))?;
-        let canvas: web_sys::HtmlCanvasElement = document
-            .create_element("canvas")?
-            .dyn_into()
-            .map_err(|_| JsValue::from_str("Failed to create compositor canvas"))?;
+        // On WebGL, wgpu is bound to a specific canvas; reuse it so the UI
+        // can mount the output directly instead of copying pixels through
+        // an intermediate 2D canvas every frame. On WebGPU, surface rendering
+        // works against any canvas so we create a fresh one.
+        let canvas = if let Some(gl_canvas) = gpu_runtime.context.gl_canvas() {
+            gl_canvas.clone()
+        } else {
+            let document = web_sys::window()
+                .and_then(|window| window.document())
+                .ok_or_else(|| JsValue::from_str("Document is not available"))?;
+            document
+                .create_element("canvas")?
+                .dyn_into::<web_sys::HtmlCanvasElement>()
+                .map_err(|_| JsValue::from_str("Failed to create compositor canvas"))?
+        };
         canvas.set_width(width);
         canvas.set_height(height);
 
         let compositor = Compositor::new(&gpu_runtime.context);
+        let surface = gpu_runtime
+            .context
+            .instance()
+            .create_surface(wgpu::SurfaceTarget::Canvas(canvas.clone()))
+            .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
+        gpu_runtime
+            .context
+            .configure_surface(&surface, width, height)
+            .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
 
         COMPOSITOR_RUNTIME.with(|runtime| {
-            runtime.replace(Some(CompositorRuntime { canvas, compositor }));
+            runtime.replace(Some(CompositorRuntime {
+                canvas,
+                compositor,
+                surface,
+                surface_size: (width, height),
+            }));
         });
 
         Ok(())
@@ -46,16 +71,25 @@ pub fn init_compositor(width: u32, height: u32) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
 
 #[wasm_bindgen(js_name = resizeCompositor)]
 pub fn resize_compositor(width: u32, height: u32) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
-    COMPOSITOR_RUNTIME.with(|runtime| {
-        let mut borrow = runtime.borrow_mut();
-        let Some(runtime) = borrow.as_mut() else {
-            return Err(JsValue::from_str(
-                "Compositor is not initialized. Call initCompositor() first.",
-            ));
-        };
-        runtime.canvas.set_width(width);
-        runtime.canvas.set_height(height);
-        Ok(())
+    with_gpu_runtime(|gpu_runtime| {
+        COMPOSITOR_RUNTIME.with(|runtime| {
+            let mut borrow = runtime.borrow_mut();
+            let Some(runtime) = borrow.as_mut() else {
+                return Err(JsValue::from_str(
+                    "Compositor is not initialized. Call initCompositor() first.",
+                ));
+            };
+            runtime.canvas.set_width(width);
+            runtime.canvas.set_height(height);
+            if runtime.surface_size != (width, height) {
+                gpu_runtime
+                    .context
+                    .configure_surface(&runtime.surface, width, height)
+                    .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
+                runtime.surface_size = (width, height);
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        })
     })
 }
 
@@ -119,8 +153,12 @@ pub fn release_texture(id: String) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
 
 #[wasm_bindgen(js_name = renderFrame)]
 pub fn render_frame(options: JsValue) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
+    perf::reset();
+
+    let t_deserialize = perf::now_ms();
     let frame: FrameDescriptor = serde_wasm_bindgen::from_value(options)
         .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&format!("Invalid frame descriptor: {error}")))?;
+    perf::record("wasm.deserialize", perf::now_ms() - t_deserialize);
 
     with_gpu_runtime(|gpu_runtime| {
         COMPOSITOR_RUNTIME.with(|runtime| {
@@ -131,40 +169,50 @@ pub fn render_frame(options: JsValue) -> Result<(), JsValue> {
                 ));
             };
 
-            if gpu_runtime.context.supports_surface_rendering() {
-                let surface = gpu_runtime
+            if runtime.surface_size != (frame.width, frame.height) {
+                runtime.canvas.set_width(frame.width);
+                runtime.canvas.set_height(frame.height);
+                let t_surface = perf::now_ms();
+                gpu_runtime
                     .context
-                    .instance()
-                    .create_surface(wgpu::SurfaceTarget::Canvas(runtime.canvas.clone()))
+                    .configure_surface(&runtime.surface, frame.width, frame.height)
                     .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
+                perf::record("wasm.surfaceConfigure", perf::now_ms() - t_surface);
+                runtime.surface_size = (frame.width, frame.height);
+            }
 
-                runtime
+            if gpu_runtime.context.supports_surface_rendering() {
+                let t_render = perf::now_ms();
+                let result = runtime
                     .compositor
                     .render_frame(
                         &gpu_runtime.context,
                         RenderFrameOptions {
                             frame: &frame,
-                            surface: &surface,
+                            surface: &runtime.surface,
                         },
                     )
-                    .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))
+                    .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()));
+                perf::record("wasm.renderFrameToSurface", perf::now_ms() - t_render);
+                result
             } else {
-                // WebGL cannot surface-render to an arbitrary canvas element.
-                // Composite to a texture, then blit to the canvas via the 2D context.
+                // WebGL still needs a separate composition pass, but the output
+                // surface is now persistent just like the WebGPU path.
+                let t_composite = perf::now_ms();
                 let texture = runtime
                     .compositor
                     .render_frame_to_texture(&gpu_runtime.context, &frame)
                     .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
+                perf::record("wasm.compositeToTexture", perf::now_ms() - t_composite);
 
+                let t_present = perf::now_ms();
                 gpu_runtime
                     .context
-                    .render_texture_via_gl_canvas(
-                        &texture,
-                        &runtime.canvas,
-                        frame.width,
-                        frame.height,
-                    )
-                    .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))
+                    .present_texture_to_surface(&texture, &runtime.surface)
+                    .map_err(|error| JsValue::from_str(&error.to_string()))?;
+                perf::record("wasm.presentToSurface", perf::now_ms() - t_present);
+
+                Ok(())
             }
         })
     })
diff --git a/rust/wasm/src/perf.rs b/rust/wasm/src/perf.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0c346a4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rust/wasm/src/perf.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+#![cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
+
+//! Per-frame profile buffer for the render pipeline.
+//!
+//! Sub-span timings are recorded into a thread-local during `renderFrame`
+//! and drained by JS via `getLastFrameProfile()`.
+
+use std::cell::RefCell;
+
+use js_sys::{Array, Object, Reflect};
+use wasm_bindgen::{JsValue, prelude::wasm_bindgen};
+
+thread_local! {
+    static LAST_FRAME_PROFILE: RefCell<Vec<(&'static str, f64)>> = const { RefCell::new(Vec::new()) };
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn now_ms() -> f64 {
+    web_sys::window()
+        .and_then(|window| window.performance())
+        .map(|performance| performance.now())
+        .unwrap_or(0.0)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn reset() {
+    LAST_FRAME_PROFILE.with(|cell| cell.borrow_mut().clear());
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn record(name: &'static str, duration_ms: f64) {
+    LAST_FRAME_PROFILE.with(|cell| cell.borrow_mut().push((name, duration_ms)));
+}
+
+#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = getLastFrameProfile)]
+pub fn get_last_frame_profile() -> Array {
+    LAST_FRAME_PROFILE.with(|cell| {
+        let entries = cell.borrow();
+        let array = Array::new_with_length(entries.len() as u32);
+        for (index, (name, duration_ms)) in entries.iter().enumerate() {
+            let entry = Object::new();
+            Reflect::set(&entry, &JsValue::from_str("name"), &JsValue::from_str(name))
+                .expect("set name");
+            Reflect::set(
+                &entry,
+                &JsValue::from_str("durationMs"),
+                &JsValue::from_f64(*duration_ms),
+            )
+            .expect("set durationMs");
+            array.set(index as u32, entry.into());
+        }
+        array
+    })
+}
diff --git a/rust/wasm/src/wasm.rs b/rust/wasm/src/wasm.rs
index 1a33092a..0687ff4b 100644
--- a/rust/wasm/src/wasm.rs
+++ b/rust/wasm/src/wasm.rs
@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@ mod effects;
 mod gpu;
 #[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
 mod masks;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
+mod perf;
 
 #[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
 pub use compositor::*;
@@ -15,4 +17,6 @@ pub use effects::*;
 pub use gpu::*;
 #[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
 pub use masks::*;
+#[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
+pub use perf::*;
 pub use time::*;